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THE 



AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER, 

AND 

MANAGERS' AND CARDERS' GUIDE: 

A PRACTICAL TREATISE 

ON 

COTTON SPINNING* 



THE DIMENSIONS AND SPEED OF MACHINERY, DRAUGHT AND 

TWIST CALCULATIONS, ETC. ; WITH NOTICES 
OF RECENT IMPROVEMENTS. 

TOGETHER WITH 

K\ LES AND EXAMPLES FOR MAKING CHANGES IN THE SIZE ANA. 

NUMBERS OF ROVING AND YARN. 

COMPILED FROM THE PAPERS OF THE LATE 

EGBERT H. BAIRD. 



PHILADELPHIA: 

HENRY CAREY BAIRD, 

INDUSTRIAL PUBLISH Ell. 

No. 40(5 WAT. NUT ST. 

ISC 9. 






Entered, according to the Act oi Congress, in the year iSSl, by 

A. HART, 

in tne Clerk's ofl.'ce of the District Court of the United States, foi 

the Eastern District of Pennsyb ani*, 

. : : y, 

MAY 2 6 1932 



7^ 



) 



9 



Hl<o 



PEEFACE. 



The following pages are chiefly the work of the late 
Robert H. Baird, well known as an expert cotton 
spinner. But, as the manufacture of cotton is rapidly 
progressing, and his manuscript was written some few 
years since, it was found necessary to make such ad- 
ditions to it, as would bring the subject up to the pre- 
sent time. It is not the intention of this treatise, to 
give a perfect description of cotton machinery, such 
as is at present in use ; the chief object is, to furnish 
the managers and foremen of cotton factories with a 
guide, by which to calculate the draught and twist of 
the various machines, and afford them some assistance 
in managing the machinery. 

But little could be said on the subject of weaving, 
as it has been already ably treated of in other works 
of merit; still, a treatise on weaving is very much 
needed, particularly on plain weaving. But, as this 
subject, if fully developed, would occupy more space 
and absorb more means than can be assigned to it in 
this instance, we hesitated about entering fully upon 
it at this time, and intend, at some future period, to 
offer to the public an elaborate work on weaving. 

(iii) 



IV PREFACE. 

The large amount of capital invested in cotton plan- 
tations, in mill-seats, buildings, water-works, steam- 
engines, and all the machinery required for the manu- 
facture of cotton goods, the number of persons that 
are employed in perfecting these manufactures, and 
the value of the articles manufactured, all entitle the 
cotton manufacture in this country to a claim upon 
our particular attention. 

It is evident that the manufacture of cotton has 
become a very important branch of our national in- 
dustry, and that a practical work upon this subject, 
the first of the kind published in this country, explana- 
tory of the movements of cotton machinery, and of 
the various processes used in the manufacture of the 
goods, together with plain and practical rules for as- 
certaining the best modes of operating the various 
complicated machines used in this highly important 
manufacture, cannot fail to be interesting to all the 
parties engaged therein. 

This work is intended for the mutual advantage of 
employers and operatives ; and, as the interests and 
welfare of both are inseparably identified, the motto, 
" united we stand, divided we fall," is truly applicable 
to cotton growers, mill owners, and operative cotton 
spinners. 



CONTENTS 



Introduction Page 1 3 

Remarks on the Plait of a Factory Building 30 

Dimensions of the Building 30 

Plan of Binlding 30 

Picking Department 31 

Hoisting Passage 32 

Dimensions of a Building for 5000 Spindles 33 

Remarks on the Main Gearing 35 

Horizontal Shafts 35 

Conveying Power by Belts 35 

Geared by Wheels 3G 

Couplings 37 

To disconnect the Gearing 37 

Examination of Machinery 39 

Lubrication 39 

Heavy Machinery near the Moving Power 40 

Simplicity of Machinery 40 

Pulleys 41 

Belts 41 

Shafts to be turned 41 

How to fasten Pulleys 41 

Casings around Wheels 42 

Remarks on Water-wheels 13 

Effect of Water-wheels 43 

Breast-wheels 43 

Speed of Water-wheels 44 

Master-wheel 44 

Regulator or Governor 45 

1* (v) 



VI CONTENTS. 

CALCULATIONS OF HoRSE-PoWER FOR PROPELLING CoTTON- 

SpINNING MACHINERY , 46 

Spindles driven by One-horse Power 46 

Horse Power 47 

Water-wheel at Lowell 47 

Dead and Live Spindles— Difference in Power 47 

Calculation of Horse Power in Water-wheels 48 

Steam-engine in an English Factory 48 

Steam-engine in an American Factory 49 

Willey, or Picking Machine 49 

M'Credy's Willey 50 

Description of a Willey 51 

Description of a Patent Willey 51 

Remarks ott Willeying Cotton 53 

Mixing Raw Cotton 54 

Mixing the Waste 54 

Waste weakens the Yarn 54 

Grating to be kept clear 55 

Stringing Cotton 56 

Better not to mix Waste with Cotton 56 

Spreading-Machine 57 

Machines with Three Beaters 57 

Speed of Macb ine 58 

Dimensions of a Spreading-machine 59 

Remarks on Spreading Cotton 60 

Time to feed 60 

Consequences of Bad Feeding 60 

Weighing the Cotton 61 

Feeding-cloth » 61 

Altering the Weight of the Lap 6Q 

Causes of Difference in Weight 62 

Oiling and Cleaning 63 

Fire produced by Friction 63 

Spare Pinions 64 

Carding 64 

Dimensions of Cards 65 

Thirty-inch Cards 65 

A Wide Card 66 

Another Wide Card 67 

Another Twenty-four Inch Card 68 

Calculation of the Draught of these Cards , . 69 



CONTENTS. VU 

Remarks on Cards and Carding 70 

Belts and Journals inside the Cards 70 

Use of Flats 71 

General Remarks 71 

Turning up a Card 72 

Sliding Rest 72 

Wood for Card-cylinders 73 

Iron Doffers . . . . 73 

Clothing Cards 74 

Grinding the Cards 75 

Hand-emeries « . 76 

Using the Hand-emery « 78 

Ground Hollow 78 

Straight Edges 79 

How to examine a Card . . . 79 

Setting Cards 81 

Setting the Comb-plate 82 

Stripping of Cards 82 

Cards should not run bare 83 

Screens 83 

Length of Screen 84 

Number of Holes 84 

Use of Screens 85 

Advantages of Screens 86 

To connect Cards by Railroad 87 

Facing Cards 88 

Clothing Cards — Direction of the Wire 89 

Kind of Wire used in Cards 90 

Regulations in the Carding Room 90 

Speed of parts of the Card 91 

Covering Emery Rollers and Emeries 92 

Kind of Emery 92 

Cleaning Emery 93 

Making Emery Rollers 93 

Making Hand-emeries 95 

Pressing Emeries with Rollers 96 

To find the Draught of a Card 97 

The Dimensions of the Parts of a Card 97 

Draught of a Drawing-head 99 

To find the Length of a Fillet .100 

Size of Fillets 101 

To find the Length of a Fillet for a Likerin 103 

To find the Length of the Fillet for a Worker 103 

Length of Fillet to cover a Stripper 104 



frill CONTENTS. 

Remarks on Cards and Carding. 

Number of Teeth to the Square Inch of each Number of 

Card-wire 105 

The Drawing-frame 106 

Sizes of Drawing-frames 108 

Draught Calculations of these Heads 108 

First Head 108 

Drawing-frame of another Size 109 

Draught Calculations of First Head 110 

Drawing-frame of another Form 110 

Draught Calculations of First Head Ill 

To find the Draught of any Machine with Three Rollers, 112 

Simple Method of taking the Draught 113 

Trying the Stuff 114 

Change-pinions 116 

Drawing and Doubling 116 

Drawing with Doublet's 117 

Jenks' Drawing-frame 118 

Sliver from the Railroad 119 

Changing the Draught 119 

Changing the Size of the Roving 120 

Roving 125 

Speeders 127 

Dimensions of Belt-Speeders 127 

Draught of this Speeder . . 128 

Belts on Speeders 128 

Eclipse Speeder 131 

How to become acquainted with Machinery 132 

Speeder-bobbins and Skewers 132 

Slubbing and Fly Frames 134 

The Slubbing Frame 135 

The Fly Frame 135 

General Remarks on Drawing and Roving 136 

Importance of Doubling 136 

Amount of Doubling , . . 136 

Speed of Drawing- frames 137 

Top Rollers , . 138 

Cutting at the Drawing-frames 139 

Revolving of Cans 140 

Sizes of Cans and Roving-boxes 141 

Waste 141 



CONTENTS. IX 

General Remarks on Drawing and Roving. 

Sweeping the Rooms 145 

Scouring, Brushes, and Clearers 144 

Varnish on Top Rollers . 146 

Draught of Calender Rollers 147 

To prove Rovings by Grains and Scales 148 

To try Rovings by the Quadrant. . . 149 

A Table, showing the Size of Rovings, from a Quarter 
Hank to Five Hanks in the Pound, by Scales and Grains, 

with Forty Threads, or a Half Cut 152 

A Table, showing the Size of Roving by the Yarn Quadrant, 
from Half Hank to Six Hank Roving, by Forty Threads, 

or a Half Cut 153 

Throstles 1 54 

Live Spindles . . 1 54 

Dead Spindles 155 

Ring Spindle 155 

Dimensions of a Live-spindle Throstle 157 

Speed of Spindles, and Product of Throstle 158 

Cap-spindle Throstle 1 59 

Draught of these Throstles 159 

Draught Calculation 160 

Remarks on Throstles 161 

Throstle Spindles 161 

Brewster's Spindles 162 

Various Spindles . 162 

Traverse Motion 163 

Regulating the Drag of the Bobbin 164 

Cleaning and Oiling 166 

Spindles 166 

Draught 167 

Waste 167 

Bobbin-boards 168 

Power required for Throstles 168 

Bobbins 169 

Mule-spinning 169 

Mules 169 

Dimensions of Mules for Twist 171 

Draught and Twist 172 

Head Twist 172 

Dimensions of a Filling Mule . 173 

Draught and Twist of a Filling Mule 173 

Greatest Speed of a Mule 174 

Speed of another Mule 174 



Z CONTENTS. 

General Observations on Mule-spinning 175 

Correcting a Mule when in Disorder 175 

The Faller 176 

Inclination of the Spindle 177 

Cleaning the Machine 177 

To regulate the Speed of a Carriage 178 

Difference between Mule and Throstle Twist 179 

Size of Shuttle-cops 179 

Banding 180 

To find the Draught of any Spinning Machine 180 

To find the Draught of a Mule 181 

Method of finding the Twists per Inch 182 

To find how many Revolutions the Spindle makes to one 
of the Fly; and how often the Spindle revolves per 

Minute 183 

To find the Number of Twists per Inch in the Yarn . . . 184 

To find the necessary Twist in an Inch of Yarn 185 

To find the Speed, or the Number of Revolutions per 

Minute, of any Machine, Cylinder, or Shaft 188 

The same Rule, applied to the Counter-shaft 188 

To prove Yarn by Scales and Grains 189 

A Table, showing the Size of Yarn, from No. 8 up to No. 
33, by Scales and Grains, calculated by One Hank, or 

Seven Cuts 191 

To calculate the Number of Yarn from the Number of the 

Hank Roving 191 

A method of making a Sett of Small Weights, for trying 

Yarn by Hank or Skein 192 

A Table, showing the Size of Yarn, from No. 8 up to No. 
34 Hanks in the Pound, by a Pound Avoirdupois, divided 

into 512 Parts 193 

To find the Change-pinion of a Mule, and to spin any re- 
quired Number from a given Roving 193 

To find the Number of Turns per Inch, and Twists per 

Stretch 195 

To find the Pinion for a given Number 196 

To find the Hank Roving for a given Number of Yarn. . 197 

To find the Number of Hanks in a Pound of Yarn 198 

To change from one Number to another, on a Mule or a 
Throstle, when the Draught and Roving have both to 

be altered 198 

To find the Number of Draws or Stretches on a Cop of 

Mule Yarn „ 200 

To find the Average Number of a Sett of Cops 201 



CONTENTS. XI 

General Observations on Mule-spinning. 

To change from one Number to another, without changing 

the Roving 202 

To find the Work done by a Machine in one Week 203 

Weaving 204 

To find the Weight of a Warp 209 

To find the Numbers of a Warp 210 

Reeling, and Size of a Reel . . . , 211 

To find the Length of a Driving-belt 211 

To find the Length of a Cross-belt for the same place . . 212 

Belting 213 

Width of Belts for Frame Spindles 213 

" " Mule Spindles 214 

" " Mule and Frame Spindles 215 

Width of Counter-belts for Pickers 216 

" « Cards 216 

" " Drawing-frames 217 

« " Twist Speeders 217 

" " Mule Spindles 217 

" " Frames, (Live and Dead Spin- 
dles) 218 

Width of Counter-belts for Dressers, (three Fans to each 

Dresser) 218 

Width of Counter-belts for Looms 218 

Miscellaneous Matters , 219 

Spooling Machines 219 

Prices of Machinery 219 

" " manufactured by Alfred Jenks. .. . 221 

" Looms, " " " . . . . 223 

Wages of Hands employed, and Cost of Running 8064 
Mule Spindles, with Preparation, by Steam-power, per 
Month of four Weeks 224 

Wages of Hands, and Expense of Running 9332 Spindles, 
with Preparation, per Month of Four Weeks, by Water- 
power 225 

Wages in the New England States 227 

A correct Account of the Weight of Yarn spun each Week, 
in a Factory containing 8212 Spindles, during six 
Months, or twenty-six Weeks. Also, of the Waste per 
Week 228 

Wages, Expenses, and Profits of a Cotton Factory for one 
Month 229 

Mode of constructing a Factory Clock ............... 2?0 



Xli CONTENTS. 

A Concise Description of the Various Kinds of Cotton, 232 

Invention of Whitney's Cotton-Gin 233 

Difference in Cotton 233 

The Cause of Short Crops 235 

A Description of the Cotton produced in North America, and 

other Parts of the World 236 

Colour of Raw Cotton 236 

Sea Island Cotton 237 

Upland Cotton 237 

New Orleans Cotton 238 

Cleaning Cotton by the Gin 238 

Bowed Georgia Cotton 238 

The Saw Gin 239 

South American Cotton 240 

West India Cotton 241 

East India Cotton 242 

Turkey and Levant Cotton 243 

Egyptian Cotton 243 

Proportionate Commercial Value of the Different Kinds 

of Cotton 244 

The Cultivation of Cotton 244 

The Production of Cotton 245 

The Consumption of Cotton ,. • « . 247 



$&u 



AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER, 



INTRODUCTION. 

In a work of tins nature, it may not be considered inappli- 
cable to introduce a brief sketch of the rise, progress, and 
present state of the cotton manufacture in the United States. 

The rapid growth and prodigious magnitude of the cotton 
manufacture in this county, are unparalleled in the history 
of industry. In 1790, the first cotton mill, with machinery 
on the Arkwright principle, was erected in Pawtucket, Rhode 
Island, by the late Samuel Slater. The first spinning machine 
was, what is called a water frame, containing twenty-four 
spindles: it was on the throstle principle. This was the 
humble origin of a system in this country, destined to exer- 
cise a mighty and growing influence over the interests of 
this great Republic. 

Since this first machinery was in operation, the advance- 
ment and extension of the cotton manufacture is truly as« 
tonishing ; it has caused hundreds of populous cities, towns, 
and villages to spring up, as if reared by some magic influence, 
where, a few years ago, nothing was seen but a barren wilder- 
ness. The cotton manufacture continued to spread from this 
2 ( 13 > 



14 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

time up to the "War of 1812, which gave the manufactures a 
strong impulse. There were several small mills in Rhode 
Island in 1807. In this year, the Globe Mills, in Phila- 
ladelphia, were erected: a Mi. Davenport was the principal, 
and Dr. Redman Coxe was rc-anected with it. In 1812, 
there were in Rhode Island thirty-three cotton factories, con- 
taining 30,663 spindles. In Massachusetts there were twenty 
mills, with 17,371 spindles. An impression, favourable to 
the protection of domestic manufactures, was everywhere 
manifested. At the close of the war, in 1815, Mr. Jefferson 
had changed his views on the subject of manufactures, and 
expressed himself as follows : " To be independent of others 
for the comforts of life, we must manufacture, ourselves ) we 
must place the manufacturer by the side of the agriculturist. 
Experience has taught me that manufactures are as necessary 
to our independence as to our comfort." But those patriotic 
sentiments were not the sentiments of the majority in Congress. 
The importations of 1815 and ; 16 were earned to a most ex- 
travagant extent • the country was completely inundated with 
foreign manufactures. Mr. Dallas, the Secretary of the Trea- 
sury, reported a tariff, the adoption of which would have 
afforded tolerable protection to the majority of our manufac- 
turers. "The tariff" (says the late venerable and truly pa- 
triotic Mathew Carey, in his "Appeal to Common Sense,") 
11 he (Mr. Dallas,) proposed, claimed a high degree of atten- 
tion, but received very little from Congress, who cut and 
carved it most unmercifully/' The capital invested in manu- 
facturing establishments at that time, amounted to about 
$60,000,000. The amount of importations during the two. 
years was about 8180,000,000. Although the most moving 
petitions and pathetic appeals were poured into Congress from 
all the manufacturing districts, portraying in the most vivid 



INTRODUCTION. 15 

colours their sufferings and distress, it was all in vain. Manj 
of the members of Congress zealously contended for the adop- 
tion of Mr. Dallas' tariff, but to no effect. 

Throughout the years 1817, '18, ; 19, and '20, ruin and 
desolation spread among the manufacturers. In 1822, Mr. 
Baldwin's tariff was brought before Congress; it was bitterly 
opposed ; but, with several modifications, it passed into a law 
in 1824. The drooping spirits of the manufacturers had been 
sustained by the anticipation of this result. Although the 
increase of the duties was not sufficient to prevent the market 
from being glutted with British goods, the manufactures gra- 
dually improved, and even increased. 

In the year 1820, Captain John Towers erected the first 
mill in Manayunk, Pennsylvania; and, in the same year, 
Isaac Baird rented an apartment in this mill, and spun the 
first cotton yarn ever manufactured in that place. In 1818 
the Canal was in process of construction, and there were only 
two small cottages on the space now occupied by this thriving 
manufacturing town. 

Astonishing as has been the increase of the various manu- 
facturing towns and villages in the United States, Lowell, in 
Massachusetts, surpasses everything of the kind that has been 
witnessed within the memory of man. In the year 1819, 
Mr. Kirk Boot, of Boston, with a party of friends, visited 
that place as sportsmen, seeking amusement. Mr. Kirk Boot, 
being a highly intelligent and quick-sighted gentleman, per- 
ceived the advantages it afforded for the location of mill-sites. 
It was then a poor barren district, containing but a few houses, 
and inhabitants, who supported themselves principally by 
fishing in the Concord and Merrimack rivers, which unite at 
this point. A company of wealthy men was formed in Bostonj 
who purchased the land and water privileges 



16 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

The Lowell manufactures represent at present about a mils 
of mills, filled with machinery. These factories extend from 
Pawtucket Falls to the Merrimack river, in a continuous liner. 
The first corporation was organized in 1822, under the name 
of the Merrimack Manufacturing Company, for the manufac- 
ture of prints and sheetings : this establishment employed 
last year 2050 hands. The twelve manufacturing companies 
of Lowell were incorporated in the following order : — 

Merrimack Manufacturing Company, in 1822, with a capital 
of $2,000,000. There are six mills, exclusive of print works ; 
these mills contain 67,965 spindles, and 1920 looms, which 
produce 345,000 yards of cotton cloth every week. 

Hamilton Manufacturing Company, incorporated in 1825; 
capital stock, 81,100,000. This Company has four mills and 
printworks, 36,228 spindles, and 1086 looms; which pro- 
duce 180,000 yards of prints, flannels, and sheetings. They 
employ 1200 hands. 

Appleton Company, incorporated in 1828. Capital stock, 
$600,000. They have two mills, with 17,920 spindles and 
600 looms, producing about 130,000 yards of sheetings and 
shirtings per week. This Company employs 520 hands. 

Lowell Manufacturing Company, incorporated in 1828, 
capital, $900,000 ; has two mills, 220 cotton, and 60 carpet 
power looms, which make 6,500 yards of carpeting, 40 
woollen rugs, and 95,000 yards of cotton cloth, weekly ; 880 
persons are employed. 

Middlesex Company. This Company was incorporated in 
1830, rrith a capital of $600,000. They have four mills, 
and various dye-houses, 16,340 spindles, with 45 looms for 
broad-cloth, 325 looms for cassimere, and make 18,957 yards 
9f cassimere, and 2334 of broad-cloth per week. This Com- 
pany employs 1750 hands. 



INTRODUCTION. 17 

Suffolk Mills; incorporated in 1830. Capital, $600,000. 
They have 14,448 spindles, 488 looms, make 100,000 yards 
of drillings per week, and employ 500 operatives. 

Tremont Mills. Incorporated in 1830; capital stock, 
$600,000. This Company owns two mills, containine 14,560 
spindles and 517 looms, which produce 120,000 yards of 
sheetings and shirtings weekly : 500 hands employed. 

Lawrence Manufacturing Company. This Company was 
incorporated in 1830, having a capital of $1,500,000. They 
have five mills, 44,500 spindles, and 1260 looms, and pro- 
duce per week 260,000 yards of printing cloth, sheetings and 
shirtings, on which 1400 hands are engaged. 

Boot Cotton Mills, commenced 1835. Capital, $1,200,000. 
This Company has five mills and a picking house. They run 
41,712 spindles and 1338 looms, worked by 1100 hands, 
which make every week 220,000 yards of drillings, shirtings, 
and printing cloth. 

Massachusetts Cotton Mills; incorporated in 1839. Capital, 
$1,800,000. Six mills, 45,720 spindles, 1459 looms, 1500 
hands ; make 475,000 yards of sheetings, shirtings, and dril- 
lings every week. 

Lowell Bleachery, formed in 1832; $210,000 capital. It 
employs 220 hands, who bleach 4,000,000 pounds, and dye 
2,000,000 yards annually. 

The Lowell Machine Shop. An extensive establishment, 
employing 700 hands. 

There are two Savings Banks, in which the principal de- 
positors are the factory operatives. There is a hospital for 
the sick, under able management. The population of Lowell 
was, in 1820, 200; it is now swelled to 35,000 inhabitants. 

The average wages of females is $2 per week; men receive 
80 cents per day, exclusive of their board. Each Company 
2 * 



13 



AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 



has their own boarding-house, to accommodate their own help. 
The wages are paid in cash, regularly every month. 

Amongst the numerous towns which have sprung into ex- 
istence, and whose rise can be attributed to the influence of 
manufactures, may be mentioned Waltham, Patterson, Ware, 
Fall River, Taunton, Pawtueket, Lawrence, Adams, New 
Market, Matte wan, Norristown, Pa., and Gloucester, N. J. 

In 1840, there were in the United States about 1025 cot- 
ton mills, containing about 2,112,000 spindles, of which there 
were, 



In the State of Massachusetts, about 310 cotton mills. 



a 


a 


New Hampshire, i 


1 70 


tt 


a 


a 


it 


Vermont, l 


< 30 


a 


a 


tt 


it 


Rhode Island, ' 


< 130 


tt 


tt 


a 


tt 


Connecticut, ' 


' 120 


a 


a 


it 


it 


New York, l 


< 120 


it 


a 


tt 


a 


Pennsylvania, ' 


< 80 


a 


tt 


it 


ii 


New Jersey, 


< 55 


tt 


u 


it 


a 


Delaware, ' 


< 17 


a 


tt 


tt 


a 


Maryland, ' 


< 30 


a 


tt 


tt 


a 


Ohio, < 


' 10 


a 


a 


a 


it 


Virginia, t 


< 10 


a 


a 


a 


it 


Kentucky, ( 


< 10 


a 


a 



Several of these were small establishments, with not more 
than 1000 spindles ; there were also numerous small factories 
in the Western and Southern States, which are not included 
in the above statement. 

The power-loom, and the process of printing calico by ma- 
chinery, are the crowning sequels to the machines used in 
the manufacture of cotton. These have completed a series 
of, perhaps, the most perfect inventions ever presented to the 



INTRODUCTION. 19 

world, whether as regards the mechanical excellence of their 
operations, or the attendant results. Before the introduction 
of calico printing, the cotton manufacture in the United 
States was considered to be in such a precarious condition, 
that no one would venture on the manufacture of the finer 
fabrics ; but since calico printing has been well established, 
the manufacture of cotton may be said to be built upon a 
permanent basis. The home consumption of cotton prints is 
immense ; and our domestic prints, of the better kind, as well 
as our shirtings, sheetings, bed-ticks, jeans, fustians, sail-cloth, 
&c, are much more durable and substantial than the French 
or English goods of the same description. The American 
cotton goods enjoy the preference in South America, China, 
Siam, the East Indies, &c, and, indeed, wherever they have 
made their appearance. 

In 1840, there were in operation in the United States, 

1025 cotton mills, containing 2,112,000 spindles. 

Cotton used annually 108,000,000 pounds. 

Capital invested in cotton manufac. . . $80,000,000 

Annual value of cotton manufacture . $60,000,000 

In the same year, there were in operation, 29,786 spindles 
in Maine; 195,173, in New Hampshire; 669,095, in Mas- 
sachusetts; 518,817, in Rhode Island; 181,319, in Connec- 
ticut; making an aggregate of 1,590,140 cotton spindles in 
those five States. 

The number of spindles in operation at the present time, 
1850, has been computed at 2,500,000; which shows an in- 
crease of twenty per cent, within the last ten years. 

The following table, which we take from the Scientific- 
American, shows more distinctly the progress of the cotton 
manufacture in this country : — 



20 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 



Years. 


Male opera- 
tives em- 
ployed. 


Female ope- 
ratives em- 
ployed. 


Wasres of 
Females. 


Wnsres of 
Males. 


AgsTKrata 

Wages. 


1838 


.. 14,000 . 


. 47.000 . . 


89,287,200 • 


• 84,368,000 . 


.$13,655,200 


1839 


.. 15,000 . 


. 50,000 .. 


. 9,880,000 . 


. 4,680,000 , 


.. 14,560,000 


1840 


.. 15,500 . 


,. 52,000 •• 


. 10.275.200 . 


.. 4,836,000 . 


. . 15,111,200 


1841 


.. 13,800 . 


. 46,000 ., 


. 9,0S9,600 . 


. 4,305,000 , 


. . 13,395,200 


1842 


.. 16,500 . 


. 55,000 .. 


. 10,868,000 . 


,. 5,148,000 


. . 16,016,000 


1843 


.. 17,000 . 


. 69,000 . 


. 11.658,400 . 


, . 4.304,000 


. . 16.962,400 


1844 


.. 20,000 . 


. 66,000 .. 


, 13,041,600 . 


. 6,240,000 , 


. . 19,281,600 


1845 


.. 22,000 . 


. 72,000 .. 


. 11,227,200 . 


, . 6,864,000 


. . 21,091,200 


1846 


.. 23,000 . 


. 75,000 .. 


, 14,820,000 . 


. 7,176,000 , 


, . 21,996,000 


1847 


.. 25,000 . 


. 85,000 . 


. 16,796,000 . 


, . 7,800,000 


. . 24,596,000 


1848 


.. 27,000 . 


. 95,000 .. 


, IS, 772, 000 . 


,. 8,424,000 


.. 27,196,000 



This shows an immense increase, and, in the mean time, 
leads to the contemplation of the aptitude of the cotton trade 
and manufacture. 

The general magnitude of the cotton trade may be esti- 
mated from the following data. 

The importation of raw cotton into England, in the year 
1845, was 721,979,953 pounds; of which 626,650,412 
pounds were from the United States : 42,916,332 pounds of 
this was exported to other European States. 

In 1846, the value of cotton goods manufactured in Eng- 
land, exclusive of the home consumption, was £25,599,828; 
£1,016,146 of which was in small wares, £7,882,048 in 
twist and yarn, and £16,701,632 in other descriptions of 
goods. 

The subjoined statement will give an approximate estimate 
of the importance and extent of the cotton manufacture 
throughout the entire civilized world : 

The number of spindles emplo} T ed in the manufacture of 
potton in various parts of the world, are 28,985,000. These 
are distributed as follows: — Great Britain, 17,500,000; 
France, 4,300,000; United States, 2,500,000; Germany, 



INTRODUCTION. 2 J 

815,000; Russia, 700,000; Switzerland, 650,000; Belgium, 
420,000; Spain, 300,000; Italy, 300,000. Of the 2,500,000 
in the United States, 150,000 are in the Southern States, and 
100,000 spindles in the Western States. 

The immense amount of capital invested in the growth and 
manufacture of cotton, and the great number of persons who 
are thereby furnished with employment, render it a subject 
of great importance. It must proceed and increase ; measures 
must be adopted to regulate the system consistently with free- 
dom and good morals. We cannot neglect this with impu- 
nity ; the whole community is interested in the course to be 
pursued relative to this business. Industry and talent must 
be called into action for the promotion of the best possible 
order in manufacturing establishments, such as will be satis- 
factory to all parties concerned : there should be no variance, 
no discord, on a subject so intimately connected with the pros- 
perity of all America. 

In proportion to the increase of manufactures, and the in- 
troduction of improved systems of management in factories, 
(in which we have hitherto surpassed all other nations,) the 
prices of manufactured articles will generally depreciate, thus 
making their products accessible to all. This is strikingly 
exemplified in the following exhibit, referring to the factories 
in Lowell, Massachusetts, which we have compiled from the 
Report of the Secretary of the Treasury. The gradual de- 
cline-in the prices of cotton goods is thereby rendered very 
apparent. 

In 1835, the Lawrence Company sold stout brown sheet- 
ings, 37 inches wide, for 12 cents per yard; in 1849, the 
same goods were sold at 7 cents per yard. In 1835, the Tre- 
mont Company's stout brown sheetings, 37 inches wide, sold 
at 10 J cents per yard; in 1849, the same description of goodi? 



22 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

sold at 6 cents per j T ard. Id 1835, the Boot Company sold 
stout brown drillings, 30 inches wide, for 14 cents per yard; 
and, in 1849, at 7 cents. In 1835, the Tremont Company's 
brown shirtings sold at 8 cents per yard ; and, in 1849, at 4 
cents. 

The printed calicoes, manufactured by the Merrimack Com- 
pany, show the following decrease in price : — 

Year. Cents per Yard. Year. Cents per Yard. Year. Cents per Yard 



1836 . 


. . 17.83 


1841 . , 


, . 13.25 


1846 . , 


, . 10.82 


1837 . 


.. 17. 


1842 . , 


.. 11.91 


1847 . , 


, . 11.05 


1838 . 


. . 14.39 


1843 . , 


. . 10.56 


1848 . , 


. . 9.89 


1839 . 


. . 15.98 


1844 . 


. . 11.60 


1849 . 


. . 9.28 


1840 . 


.. 13.78 


1845 . 


. . 11.50 







Our factories generally, and the cotton manufactures parti- 
cularly, are at present much affected by the importation of 
foreign goods, said to be caused chiefly by too low a tariff on 
those importations. Yv^e do not feel inclined to investigate 
the truth of these assertions ; yet, it is a fact, that the manu- 
facturers in this country suffer to a greater extent than those 
of England. One consideration, however, may be brought 
to bear against the policy of a protective tariff, or, in other 
words, against the prohibition of foreign cotton goods. The 
United States are producers of raw cotton, as well as of ma- 
nufactured cotton goods, and are, at the same time, the largesc 
consumers of those goods, whether domestic or foreign. The 
nett profits on raw cotton, realized by the cotton-growing 
States, probably amounts at the present time to 840,000,000 
per year. The question now arises : whether these profits 
can be secured to the United States by the exclusion of 
foreign goods ? Whether the manufacturers of cotton goods 
can secure that sura to the Union by the exportation of their 



INTRODUCTION. 23 

products ; or, at least, the above amount, minus the profits on 
the imported goods? The value of cotton goods imported 
into the United States, after deducting the amount re-ex- 
ported, was, 

In the year 1844 $13,286,830 

" 1845 13,860,729 

« 1846 12,857,422 ' 

" 1848 17,205,417 

" 1849 15,182,518 

" 1850 19,685,986 

The value of the manufactured cotton goods re-exported 
from this country during the year 1850, was $4,734,424. 
This proves that the whole actual importation does not amount 
to much. As long as England, or the other European nations 
pay a fair price for raw cotton, which is at present the case, 
good policy would dictate to us to sell it, instead of insisting 
on manufacturing all that our wants require. The number 
of mills at present in operation cannot supply the home 
market, and the organization of new manufacturing corpora- 
tions tends to the absorption of capital. The question, there- 
fore, is, whether capital pays a higher rate of interest when 
invested in the production of raw cotton, than it does in the 
manufacture of cotton goods ? Kaw cotton seems to be, at 
present, the most profitable commodity, for, 

The exports of raw cotton for 1850 have been $71,984,616 

" 1849 " « .66,596,887 

" 1848 " « 61,898,294 

« « 1847 " " 53,415,848 

" " 1846 « " 42,787,341 

This table exhibits the amount of profit 'derived from the 



u 


a 


a 


it 


a 


a 


a 


u 



24 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

culture of cotton. If the profits on the crop of 1846 were 
but $10,000,000, which is a reasonable estimate, the profits 
on that of 1850 must have amounted to $40,000,000. If our 
cotton factories, by the exclusion of foreign manufactures, can 
secure that profit to the Union, it will certainly be good 
policy to exclude all importations of cotton goods ; provided, 
the factories can furnish the article in the market at the same 
prices, or lower than those of the foreign article. If we 
could not find purchasers at reasonable prices for our raw ma- 
terial, we should then act wisely in excluding all foreign 
goods. 

The comparative idleness of our cotton factories is, no 
doubt, a lamentable prospect; but it would be unjust to 
charge this result to the General Government and the tariff 
alone. The advance in the price of the raw material, conse- 
quent upon the rapidly-increasing demand, and the partial 
failure of the crops, has as much a tendency to produce this 
effect, as the policy of the government : a high tariff would 
not have prevented the partial stoppage of our factories. The 
depression of the trade from the above causes is, after all, 
not so sensibly felt : this may be deduced from the following 
table, showing the number of spindles in the mills in the 
New England States, and the proportion of spindles remain- 
ing idle. 

No. of Spindles. 

Maine 142,700.. 

New Hampshire, 373,000.. 
Massachusetts.. 1,220,000.. 
Khode Island . . 500,000 . . 
Connecticut ... 250,000.. 

2,485,700 715,000 





No. of Spmdles 


. Now idle . 


. 112,500 


" " 


. 135,000 


it a 


. 202,000 


ii u 


. 212,000 


(l a 


. 53,000 



INTRODUCTION. 25 

This proves about one-third of the whole number of spindles 
to be idle. 

If we compare the foregoing with the following, it will 
show that the manufactures in the New England States are 
not in such a bad condition as those of the Southern States, 
which is certainly owing to a natural cause. 

A committee of the Manufacturers' Convention, held re- 
cently at Richmond, Va., state in their report, that there are 
twenty companies engaged in the manufacture of cotton in 
that State, with an aggregate capital of $1,800,000. These 
companies run 54,000 spindles when in full operation, all 
producing coarse yarn, not beyond No. 20. For some time 
past, these factories have run 22,000 spindles full time, at a 
reduction of 25 per cent, on the wages; 7000 spindles three- 
fourths of the time ; and 8000 spindles one-third of the time : 
the remainder of the factories are entirely or partially stopped. 

In Maryland, affairs are not much better than in Virginia. 
Out of 28 mills in that State, but two work full time ; 18 
work short time, and 8 are entirely idle. The total average 
product is less than half the capacity of the mills. 

A great number of very importunate petitions are daily 
presented to Congress for an alteration in the existing tariff, 
which may effect some change favourable to the manufactu- 
rers of cotton goods. So far as spinners are concerned, we 
agree with the writer of an article, published in the " Scien- 
tific American' ' of December 7, 1850, and insert it here, 
convinced of the correctness of its views on the subject in 
question. 

OUR MANUFACTURE- 

" While the sounds of political agitation .;ome floating upon 
every breeze, there are other objects and other interests which 
3 



26 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

arrest our attention and excite our feelings. There is some- 
thing sad, yea, even solemn, in beholding the dilapidated 
mansion, or the ruined homestead ; and more than once we 
have been painfully thrilled at seeing a millstone in some 
lovely vale, lying silent and broken amid the debris of the 
once busy mill, — the stream still singing sweet, but no re- 
sponse coming from the laughing hopper or the merry wheel. 
With such feelings we now hear the reports of factories stop- 
ping and closing up their labours. There is no sight which 
conveys a deeper sensation of ' sadness lone/ than that of a 
factory, once jocund with the sound of an hundred voices, and 
the gleesome hurling of throstle and loom, standing, tall, de- 
serted-looking and silent. The once-busy wheel, which gave 
motion to thousands of spindles, and hundreds of shuttles, 
stands gloomy and motionless, like a worn-out war-steed. The 
bell that once clanged cheerily at the evening hour, no more 
calls out hundreds of gladsome toilers, gushing home through 
the factory doors, to enjoy the evening's recreation and repose. 
There are many deserted oriental cities, which have no doubt 
been depopulated by war, famine, and pestilence ; these have 
their counterparts in our suspended factories and noiseless 
mills. In them 

" ' No more the spindle twirls the slender thread, 

No more the shuttle flies to "win the worker's bread.' 

" From Rhode Island, that busy cotton cloth-making hive, 
we learn that about seventy factories have stopped; from 
Lowell, and our eastern manufacturing villages, we hear the 
same ominous reports, .a Maryland, in the Patapsco Valley, 
' silence reigns ; and even from the sunny south we hear of 
depression and suspension of manufacturing operations. From 
east, west, north, and south, ' the times are bad, the cotton 



INTRODUCTION. 27 

manufacturers say/ and they say so truly. The important 
question in such a case is, ' What is the cause V One says, 
' a higher tariff is wanted ;' another says, it is owing to the 
high price of cotton ; and a few among the great many say, 
'it is owing to manufacturing too many coarse goods/ The 
first question is a political one, an^ we therefore will not dis- 
cuss it. The other two are so entwined together that we must 
and readily can establish their truth or falsity. If the de- 
mand for cotton cloth was equal to the supply, the high price 
of cotton would be paid by the consumer; for, if cloth must 
be had, it makes no matter whether its price be one shilling 
or one and sixpence. There is every reason to believe that 
the supply has been greater than the demand, for the coarse 
cotton manufactures of Britain have long been in a depressed 
state, the exports being less for the last two quarters in every 
kind of cotton manufacture : and taking this into considera- 
tion, along with the great number of our factories which have 
done but little for the past six months, we should have ex- 
pected some clearance of goods in the markets, and a respect- 
able advance in the prices, to meet the corresponding high 
price of cotton ; but no such appearance of demand for goody 
is manifested, or rather, the markets are as glut-full of cheap 
goods as ever. The merchants always like to sell cheap; 
they care not for the manufacturer's interest, only give them 
cheap goods to sell. It is a commercial fact, too, that 'when 
prices are once lowered to a fixed standard for some time, it 
is almost impossible to elevate them above it, however great 
the necessity may be for doing so.' It is our opinion, that 
there have been too many of our factories engaged in making 
coarse cotton goods. At the North this is self-evident, for 
ooarse goods can be manufactured cheaper at the South, and 



Z5 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

with the great number of factories now in operation in Georgia, 
Alabama, Tennessee, South Carolina, and some other States, 
how can it be expected that our northern manufacturers can 
long keep the field against them — they cannot do it. Leaving 
the political question out of sight, there is one remedy which 
we would suggest, that is, to go into the manufacture of finer 
fabrics, give your cotton more labour, employ more skill, and 
spend more for fine machinery. If you do not take our ad- 
vice, there is a brave chance for you to lose all your machinery, 
factories and all. Cotton, at Qd. per pound, if it requires only 
the labor of Qd. to make it sell for 12d., (the cloth weighing 
one pound we mean,) if the cotton rises in price to 12d.,' 
then the goods would have to be sold for 50 pea cent, more, 
to meet the rise in the raw material. On the other hand, if 
cotton at Qd. requires 12d. labor to sell it for lSd., then if 
cotton rises to 12d., it requires only the advance of 25 per 
cent, to make the goods pay. Everybody knows that it is 
easier to get an advance on high than on low-priced goods ; 
this is the reason, the advance is less in proportion than on 
the low-priced goods. 

"It is difficult to get stockholders of joint-stock companies 
to make wise and reasonable changes in machinery, &c, even 
when backed up with urgent requests by able agents of facto- 
ries; this is the reason why those factories are generally 
most successful, whose head stockholder has the ability, and 
is chief manager. We know of a factory, not above sixty 
miles from New York, the machinery of which has paid for 
i tself over and over again ; and although the very first quality 
of machines are made in the machine shop, for other factories, 
the old mill displays looms twenty-five years old. This should 
not be : our manufacturers must adopt some new measures, 



INTRODUCTION. 29 

.speedily and decisively. What we have suggested may not, 
if acted upon, result in a complete remedy for the evils set 
forth, but our suggestions are certainly of a remedial cha- 
racter; and we have no doubt that, if they were acted upon, 
many of our factories, with their machinery, spindles, and 
looms, now gaunt and silent like dry bones, would soon be- 
come animate with vitality, health, and prosperity/' 



3* 



30 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

REMARKS ON THE PLAN OE A FACTORY BUEDING. 

DIMENSIONS OE THE BUILDING. 

The dimensions of the building will, of course, depend on 
the number of spindles, or machinery, it is intended to con- 
tain. When this is settled upon, and the number, size, and 
dimensions of the Willeys, Spreaders, Cards, Drawing Frames, 
Speeders, Throstles, Mules, Spooling Machines, Warping 
Mills, and Looms, with the space they will occupy, ascertained, 
a plan is drawn out on an accurate scale ', particular care being 
taken to arrange all the machinery in proper order, and in 
such a systematic method, as will prove the most advantageous 
in facilitating with despatch and convenience the several ope- 
rations. The various machines must be placed so as to allow 
the necessary spaces for passages and stands for the hands. 
When this is done, the walls of the building are drawn on the 
same scale as the machines, around the machines.- By these 
means, we obtain a correct knowledge of the proper dimen- 
sions of the building, together with the places where the shafts 
and machinery are to be placed, before a stone is laid. If this 
plan is adopted, it will save a great deal of confusion and 
trouble, attended with expense and loss of time. A building 
erected on this plan, will proceed on a sure and regular system ; 
where there will be a place for everything, and everything in 
its place. 

PLAN OP BUILDING. 

Costly establishments have been erected, without taking 
the necessary precautions in the first place : they are ever 



PLAN OF A FACTORY BUILDING. 31 

after in a state of disorder and confusion, owing to the im- 
proper planning of the house, and injudicious placing of the 
machinery. It then becomes necessary to make alterations 
and changes in the position of the machines, or else work 
them to a great disadvantage ; this might all have been pre- 
vented, by following the plan here laid down. 

It is based upon an error, though a rather common one 
amongst Factory owners, that it is a saving and an economical 
measure, to pack as much machinery as possible into a given 
number of superficial feet, without paying regard to the ne- 
cessary room or space required to work the machines to proper 
advantage. 

The most convenient plan of making calculations relating 
to the Cotton manufacture, as to its produce, wages, and 
profits, and the extent, cost, and dimensions of the building, 
is by the spindle. The number of spindles in a factory were 
formerly limited to a small number. Previous to the year 
1806, the number of spindles contained in a factory seldom 
exceeded 1000. In 1838, there were 28 factories in Lowell, 
containing 150,404 spindles, being a fraction over 5,371 
spindles in each factory. At the present time there are two 
mills in Lowell, containining 17,1, ^ kindles, but capable of 
accommodating, without looms, at leasi ~! ? 000. 



PICKING DEPARTMENT. 

Buildings containing the raw cotton and waste, should be, 
if possible, detached from the i ain building : this arrange- 
ment decreases the risk arising from fire. It is preferable i;o 
place the cards on the first floor, is they will then be more 
convenient Lo the picking or spreading department; though 
it is the opinion of some persons that the throstles should oc- 



S2 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

cupy this floor, on account of their great weight, and also to 
be convenient to the moving power, as they require more 
power in proportion to the space and number of spindles, than 
any of the other machines used in a cotton factory, with the 
exception of the spreading machines. The carding rocm 
should be on a level with the picking rooms, on account of 
the necessity of a constant communication between these two 
departments. If these rooms are placed at a distance from 
each other, or not on the same level, a great deal of time 
must necessarily be wasted in the passage from one to the 
other. The lap-rollers should be carried directly from the 
spreading machines to the backs of the cards. Such an 
arrangement is very convenient for the master-carder, who can 
then superintend the picking department, without being ne- 
cessitated to leave his room frequently. It will also prove 
convenient in clearing the carding room of waste, to be mixed 
with the cotton in the picking department. 

The picking house must be fire-proof, little or no wood 
being used in its construction. The floors must be made of 
brick, as well as the ceiling, which must be arched. It is 
important that every precaution should be taken to prevent 
the occurrence of fire, which, owing to the rapid motion of 
the machines in this department, is readily created by the 
friction, if constant attention is not paid to the lubrication of 
the machinery. 

HOISTING PASSAGE. 

An easy and convenient mode should be adopted for con- 
veying the rovings from the carding room to the spinning 
rooms, so that labour and time may be economised. The 
proper time for attention to this matter is when drawing out 
the plan of the factory. Apertures should be left open from 



PLAN OF A FACTORY BUILDING. 33 

the carding room through all the spinning rooms, about the 
centre of the building, and adjacent to the side wall. These 
openings may be of the dimensions of three feet six inches 
by one foot six inches, carefully railed around, to prevent ac- 
cidents ; there should also be clear passages leading to them 
in each room, to serve for the transportation of the boxes to 
and from the hoisting machines. The stairs should always be 
placed on the outside of the building. 

It is obvious that the particular arrangements of the various 
departments, and the order in which the machinery is placed, 
will have a considerable influence upon the productiveness of 
large establishments. The advantage of having them arranged 
in the best manner which practical experience can suggest, is 
so evident, that it requires no other argument than sound 
common sense to prove it. 

DIMENSIONS OF A BUILDING FOR FIVE THOUSAND 
SPINDLES. 

The following dimensions of a factory building are not in- 
tended as a perfect model, because the situation and nature 
of the ground, and the space occupied by the building, will 
always have their influence upon the drawing of the plan, or 
the decision as to the precise form or shape of the edifice. 
Some of the proportional measurements may, however, be 
safely relied upon ; such as the height of stories, thickness 
of walls, sizes of girders, joists, windows, doors, &c. 

No. Feet. I» 

Length of building inside, in the clear .... . . 144 

Width of building inside, in the clear . . 44 

Floors, including the basement and attic ... 6 . . 

Windows in the face of each story 16 . . 



" 



34 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

No. 

Windows in the end of each story 4 

Width of windows, including sash frames .... 

Width between windows, outside 

Height of windows* from sill to lintel 

Height of window-seat from the floors 

Windows in the four stories 160 

Height of cellar story from floor to floor 

Height of carding room from floor to floor . . . 
Height of throstle room from floor to floor. . . 
Height of reeling room from floor to floor .... 

Height of mule room from floor to floor 

Height of attic, (thirty feet in the centre) .... 

Joists across t the building 33 

Depth of joists 

Thickness of joists 

Girdersf through the house 15 

Depth of girders 

Width of girders 

Distance from centre to centre of joists 

Distance from centre to centre of girders 

Thickness of walls in the cellar 

Thickness of walls in the carding room 

Thickness of walls in throstle room, 3d story . . 

Thickness of walls in reeling room 

Thickness of walls in mule room 

Height of doorways in rooms 

Width of doorways in rooms 

Width of stairs 



Feet. la 



.. 3 


4 


.. 5 


6 


.. 5 


10 


.. 2 


6 


.. 9 


1 


.. 11 


2 


.. 11 




.. 10 


10 


.. 10 


4 


. . 10 


4 




9 


• • 


3 


.. 1 


2 


.. 1 




.. 1 


3 


.. 9 


3 


.. 3 


6 


.. 3 




.. 2 


8 


.. 2 


4 


.. 2 




.. 6 


7 


.. 4 




.. 4 


4 



* Each window contains twenty-four panes, eight inches by ten. 
f An upright, nine inches square, or iron column, is required 
under the centre of tne girders in each story. 



MAIN GEARING. 



Breadth of stair steps 

Depth of stair steps 

Height of outer door 

Width of outer door 

Height of hoisting doors in each story 

Width of hoisting doors 

Diam. of upright steam pipe used as heater . 
Diam. of horizontal steam pipe " " 

Distance of horizontal pipe from the floors. . 

Length of boiler 

Diameter of boiler 

Length of picking house 

Width of picking house 

Length of stairs in factory 

Width of stairs 



Feet. In. 
1 

7 
7 

4 1 
7 
4 7 



6 
10 

5 
40 

26 

21 

4 



REMARKS ON THE MAIN GEARING. 

HORIZONTAL SHAFTS. 

In putting the horizontal shafts in a factory, single hangers 
are preferable to double ones, as it is almost impossible to 
make the latter work true, or the couplings to run well. 
There is a diversity of opinions amongst mechanics, regarding 
the advantages of upright shafts as a means of communicat- 
ing motion to the machinery, compared with large belts. 



CONVEYING POWER BY BELTS. 

Large belts, passing from a drum on the water-wheel or 
steam-engine shaft, are preferable to the old system of gearing 



86 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

a mill with vertical shafts. "Where there is a ponderous 
horizontal shaft, passing from the water wheel or steam engine 
the whole length of the factory, connected at regular intervals 
with four or six heavy vertical, driving, through all the sto- 
ries, as many horizontal shafts, a considerable amount of fric- 
tion and loss of power will ensue. In those establishments 
which have substituted belts for the ponderous shafts, the 
change has been found beneficial. Of course their recommen- 
dation induced the projectors of new factories to adopt the 
belt system. But, notwithstanding all that can be urged in 
their favour, a factory properly geared with an upright shaft, 
adjusted on correct mechanical principles, is, in many respects, 
preferable to the belt system. 



GEARED BY WHEELS. 

In a factory of 150 feet, or upwards, in length, the first 
joint of the upright shaft, gearing into the water wheel, or 
the steam engine, will necessarily be about 8 inches in dia- 
meter; the second joint, or story, 7 inches in diameter; and 
decreasing the diameter in this manner 1 inch on each joint, 
until it reaches the fifth ; the diameters will then be, 8, 7, 6, 
5, and 4 J, respectively. The horizontal shafts in each story, 
or at least in the carding and throstle rooms, should have the 
following proportions. The first joint, where the pinion is 
fixed to work into the crown-wheel, should be made of wrought 
iron, and be 3 inches in diameter; the two succeeding joints, 
2 1 inches each; the two next, 2|- inches each; and the two 
lastj 2-} inches. Where the joints are nine or ten feet in 
length, and have to carry heavy iron pullies in the middle, 
they should ne^er be less than two inches in diameter, other- 
wise they will be liable to spring or vibrate. 



MAIN GEARING. 37 

COUPLINGS. 

The couplings should each have a hold on the shaft, four 
inches in length, fastened with steel keys, fitting in key-beds. 
That part of the coupling which connects with the shaft had 
better be made round, and be cast in one piece ; this is pre- 
ferable to having them divided, or, where one-half the coupling 
is fastened to one shaft, having them divided into two parts, 
and put together by four bolts — this makes them clumsy, and 
they are apt to break at the bolt-holes. Couplings put to- 
gether by six or eight bolts, are more suitable for the large 
upright shafts, and are convenient for use on them, on account 
of their being more readily removed; whereas, the rcund 
couplings on the horizontal shafts can be easily uncoupled, by 
merely withdrawing the keys. 

TO DISCONNECT THE GEARING. 

It is very necessary that the gearing end of each horizontal 
shaft which gears into the crown-wheel on the upright shaft, 
should be so constructed, with its pedestal or bearing, that, 
having a moveable joint at this end, it may be raised, or 
dropped out of gear at a moment's notice, in case of the oc- 
currence of any accident to either the belts or shafts, the slip- 
ping or breaking of keys or bolts, or in the event of any per- 
son being caught in the machinery. This plan affords the 
means of preventing many serious accidents to individuals 
and machinery. It is sometimes necessary to run a particular 
part of the machinery in a factory, and stop the rest, for the 
purpose of making repairs, otherwise, an accidental break 
might partially suspend the operations of the factory; a 
steam engine may be required to start early in the morning 
for the purpose of pumping water; or, in a severe winter, it 
4 



38 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER, 

may be expedient to run a water wheel all night to prevent 
its freezing. On any of these occasions, if there is no con- 
venient apparatus for throwing the shafts out of gear, all the 
main horizontal shafts, counter-shafts, loose pullies and belts 
will be kept running, subjecting them to wear and tear, and 
perhaps result in some serious accident to the machinery. 
Some of the belts in almost every factory have a tendency 
to run on the fast pulley, and set the machines in motion to 
which they are attached. Any one who has been employed 
for even a short time in a cotton factory, can bear evidence to 
the disorder and confusion of a carding or throstle room in 
the morning, when the motive power has been used during 
the night for some necessary purpose. Several cards, drawing- 
frames, and speeders will be found in a deplorable condition, 
and perhaps several throstles in motion, the belts of which 
happened to run on the fast pulley, thereby putting the ma- 
chines in motion. In this case, all the rollers, both top and 
bottom, the journals, cranks, &<;., become lapped with waste 
and cotton -, several articles are forced out of their places, and 
perhaps other parts strained or broken. In addition to all 
this, the waste made, and the consequent loss of time, is con- 
siderable. All this trouble, damage, and loss can be easily 
prevented by a simple dis-connecting and connecting lever, 
attached to the pedestal of the gearing end of each horizontal 
shaft. No factory should be without this very necessary and 
useful apparatus. 

Every machine should be composed of as few parts, and 
those of as simple a character as possible — just sufficient to 
answer the purpose ; not only because it diminishes the cost 
of making and repairing, but it will be less liable to get out 
of order, and it is needless to do a thing with many parts 
when it can be done with a few. 



MAIN GEARINU. 39 

EXAMINATION OF MACHINERY. 

Particular attention should be paid by the superintendent 
in person, or by some trustworthy mechanic, to a careful ex- 
amination, two or three times each week, of all the gearing, 
head-stocks, plumber-blocks, bridges, pedestals, stays, braces, 
keys, bolts, nuts, &c, in short, everything connected with the 
gearing, to ascertain if anything is out of order, or needs re- 
pair. The loosening of a nut or a key has often caused con- 
siderable damage and loss of time, by breaking pinions, shafts, 
couplings, &c, thus stopping a great part, if not all of the 
works, for several days or weeks, occasioning a great loss to 
both owners and operatives. 



LUBRICATION. 

All the journals of the gearing and shafts should be care- 
fully oiled every morning and noon. For this purpose, tal- 
low should be kept on all the journals of the horizontal shafts. 
A very good lubrication for journals that are liable to heat to 
such a degree as to endanger ignition, may be compounded 
of common salt and tallow, well mixed together. Tallow, 
black-lead, and sulphur, mixed together, is often used for the 
same purpose ; this is a good composition to apply to the 
teeth or cogs of new gearing and new journals ; it reduces 
the friction, smooths the parts, and makes them run easy. 
Care should be taken not to apply too much oil or grease, as 
it will only be a waste of an expensive article, and cause a 
disagreeable deposit of dirt, which should be as much as pos- 
sible avoided. All the wheels, hangers, shafts, pullies, &c, 
should be particularly well cleaned every Saturday ; indeed, 
they should be occasionally cleaned through the week, so that 
they may be kept, at all times, in good running order. 



40 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

HEAVY MACHINERY NEAR THE MOVING POWER. 

In setting out the gearing of a factory, it should be the 
object of the engineer to place the heaviest machinery nearest 
the moving power; as, in the communication of motion to 
distant machinery, not only the weight of the shafting must 
be taken into consideration, but also the friction which exists 
in all the different bearings, and which is greatly increased by 
any small obstacle placed beyond those bearings. Care should 
likewise be taken to make as few bearings as possible ; still, 
retaining in view the necessity of preventing the shafts from 
swagging. If the shaft had nothing to move beyond its own 
weight, rules might be laid down for the distances of the 
bearings; but, having to carry various sized pullies, both 
their weight and that of the pullies at the machinery to be 
driven, must be estimated, in order to arrive at a correct con- 
clusion : rules, therefore, are out of the question. To have 
a bearing too many, however, is preferable to allowing the 
shaft to bend or swag, as it will then be impossible for it to 
run true in its steps or journals. 

SIMPLICITY OP MACHINERY. 

In forming couplings, great care should be taken to make 
them fit well, so that the coupled shaft may move as though 
of the same piece with the driving-shaft : nor can simplicity 
be too strongly recommended, so that the coupled shaft may, 
in case of accident, be instantaneously disengaged ; for, the 
loss of time which is the result of any accident, is a matter 
of serious importance to the manufacturer. Couplings should ' 
be placed near the bearings, as at those places there is the 
least swag, and the shaft is, of course, always weakest at the 
couplings. 



MAIN GEARING. 41 

PULLIES. 

The same observation is applicable to the arrangement of 
wheels and pullies. Pullies have been formed in two halves 
to facilitate their being placed on the shafts, and where it is 
difficult to take them down j for instance, putting a pulley on 
an upright main shaft, to drive the governor, and in other 
similar cases. But their adoption is by no means general, as 
there is some difficulty in adjusting them to run true while 
the shaft is in its place. 

BELTS. 

Belts to drive shafts in place of wheel-gearing, should be 
avoided whenever wheels can be substituted, as belts are liable 
to stretch and break, and do not transmit a regular, steady 
motion. In fixing the wheels and pullies upon a shaft, it is 
usually done by driving wedges or keys in the bush of the 
wheel or pulley. 

SHAFTS TO BE TURNED. 

In most of the factories now, or of late years, the hori- 
zontal shafts are all turned true in a slide lathe, and the hubs 
of the pullies bored out to fit each particular shaft, with a 
key-bed, filed or cut through the entire length of the eye or 
hub, and also the whole length of the shaft. 



HOW TO FASTEN PULLIES. 

The pulley is made to fit closely, so that it may be moved 
on the shaft to any place it is wanted, and the key is driven 
in tight. Sometimes one or two holes are drilled through 
the hub, and taped with pinch-screws. These screws are 

4* 



i2 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

fitted in with square heads to suit a wrench, by which the 
pullies are fastened on the shaft. Either plan of fastening, 
whether by keys or screws, will answer. The key is prefer- 
able where the pulley has to drive machinery requiring con- 
siderable power, such as throstles, pickers, spreading machines, 
or counter-shaft pullies; screws being more liable to give 
way in such cases. Wheels are usually fastened on with four 
keys ; they should be put on very true, otherwise, they will 
iOack-lash, and wear the wheels irregularly. 

If the pulley is not true, it will communicate an irregular 
motion to the belt that runs on it, and will therefore cause an 
irregular stress upon the shaft on which it works, much to the 
detriment of the bearings. Shafts and pullies should be cir- 
cular, and turned smooth and bright ; they are then less likely 
io catch anything, and have a much neater appearance ; be- 
*l^es, the pullies can be moved with greater ease and despatch. 



CASINGS AROUND WHEELS. 

A round form is certainly the best for couplings, for the 
game reason which assigns a preference to round shafts. The 
wheels of the gearing should always be enclosed in a casing 
of wood, sheet-iron, tin, or zinc, to prevent anything from 
falling into the teeth, or the oil and grease which is applied to 
the cogs from being scattered about, and to decrease the risk 
of accident to persons having business about them while in 
motion. The wheels should be oiled by brushes resting upon 
their faces, as this method distributes the oil more equally, 
and keeps it between the teeth. When new wheels are about 
to be started, some mili-wrights mix up a little fine emery 
with the tallow or grease, as it imparts a fine, smooth %;e to 
tho teeth 



WATER-WHEELS. 43 

REMARKS ON WATER-WHEELS. 

EFFECT OF WATER-WHEELS. 

Water-wheels are of various kinds: those most in use are 
over-shot wheels, breast-wheels, under-shot wheels, tub-wheels, 
and horizontal reaction wheels. The relative merits of these 
various wheels have long been a matter of dispute among me- 
chanical philosophers ; the controversy being as to which wheel 
a given quantity of water will produce the greatest effect upon. 
Smeaton and Evans were of the opinion, that the ratio of 
power derived from a given quantity of water, when applied 
to the different wheels under similar circumstances, was nearly 
as follows : for every 100 pounds of water discharged upon 
an over-shot wheel, a power is derived equal to 68 pounds, or 
68 per cent. The same amount, applied to a breast-wheel 
produces a power equal to 52 per cent. ; to an under-shot 
wheel, 34 per cent. • and to a tub-wheel, 25 per cent. And 
it has been proved by a series of experiments on some of the 
horizontal reaction wheels, that they do not convey a power 
greater than 12 per cent, of the water used; while other 
wheels of the same description effect as much as 75 per cent. 

BREAST-WHEELS. 

Where the fall of water is less than eight feet, breast 
wheels with open buckets are found to be more powerful than 
those with close buckets, under an equal force of water. Want 
of air is no impediment to wheels with open buckets : but 
wheels having close buckets are always in a greater or lew 
degree affected by it. 



44 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

SPEED OF WATER-WHEELS. 

It is said that a water wheel will overcome the greatest re- 
sistance, with a given quantity of water, when the circumfe- 
rence of the wheel is calculated to move at a velocity of six | 
feet per second. When a water-wheel moves too slow, the 
least addition to or diminution of the work, by stopping and 
starting the machinery, creates an irregularity in the move- 
ment of the wheel, which is very prejudicial to the machinery 
propelled by it. A wheel, moving at the above-mentioned 
speed, would be but slightly affected by the throwing off or 
on of machinery. With a 12 feet wheel, the speed just men- 
tioned would be equal to 10 revolutions per minute. In this 
case, it would be better to drive the wheel faster, than slower. 
It is an established rule with the best mill-wrights, to allow 
3 buckets to each foot in the diameter of the wheel. A 
wheel 12 feet in diameter should contain 36 buckets. 

MASTER-WHEEL. 

When water-wheels are used as a motive power, the seg- 
ments of the cog-wheel, or master-wheel, should never be put 
around the rim, it being the very worst place that could be 
selected. Such an arrangement causes the journals and axles 
to give way, loosening and straining all the timbers of the 
wheel. It also occasions a loss of power. A pit-wheel should 
be put on the axle, at some distance from the rim of the 
water-wheel, say about two feet ; then it will, if separated by 
a partition, run dry. A water-wheel of 12 feet diameter, 
would require a pit-wheel of about 5 feet 6 inches diameter. 
Mill-wrights have a rule for discovering the true diameter of 
the pit-wheel, which is in accordance with the diameter of the 
water-wheel. 



WATER-WHEELS. 45 



REGULATOR OR GOVERNOR. 

The regulation of the motion of a water-wheel or steam- 
engine used in spinning cotton, is of very great importance, 
particularly in a large mill. Where there is a large number 
of machines employed, many will frequently happen to be 
disengaged at the same time. This tends to diminish the re- 
sistance to the power of the first mover, which will now run 
with increased velocity, producing injurious effects on the 
operations of the machinery. In a factory filled principally 
with, or containing a large number of mules or power-looms, 
there will be a continual fluctuation in the velocity of the first 
mover; it will either work too slow or too quick, if there is 
no governor to regulate its motion. A very ingenious con- 
trivance has been invented, which, when properly constructed, 
will counteract the causes of irregularity ; and the engine of 
a large factory, so regulated, will move, with regard to the 
uniformity of its motion, like clock-work. Regulators or 
governors are constructed on various principles. Those most 
commonly in use are made of two balls, which approach and 
recede from each other by the operation of the centrifugal 
force. These balls are suspended from an upright shaft, on 
two iron rods, fastened by a hinge at the upper end to a mov- 
able collar. Two other rods are connected from the middle 
of the ball rods with a movable collar at the bottom of the 
upright shaft. When by a slow motion the balls contract, 
the collar, to which a gearing is attached, descends and con- 
nects with a gearing attached to the water-gate or steam-valve, 
and raises the gate or opens the valve. When the motion 
becomes too rapid, the balls expand and raise the collar, 
which now performs a contrary movement, lowers the gates 
or shuts the valves, and restores the velocity to its required 



46 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

uniformity. The governer is driven by a strap from a pulley 
on the main shaft. No cotton or woollen factory should be 
without these extremely useful, and, we might say, indispen- 
sable articles of machinery. 



CALCULATIONS OF HORSE-POWER FOR PROPELLING 
COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY. 

SPINDLES DRIVEN BY ONE-HORSE POWER. 

The following has been proved by numerous experiments, 
to be the effective result of a one-horse-power, applied to the 
propulsion of cotton machinery. The standard of Bolton 
and Watt — 32,000 pounds lifted one foot high per minute, 
although it represents a much greater power than that of an 
ordinary horse — from having been the first introduced intc 
use, has been generally adopted. It is of great importance 
to have one determinate rule for the measure of power, that 
will, under the most unfavourable circumstances, give a re- 
sult equal to the power of a horse. 

A one-horse-power is calculated to drive at an average speed, 
100 throstle spindles, on No. 25 cotton-yarn twist, includ- 
ing the necessary preparations. 

A one-horse-power will drive 250 mule spindles, with prepa- 
ration, on No. 25 yarn filling. 

A one-horse-power will drive 500 mule spindles, with prepa- 
tion, on No. 60 yarn filling, and for intermediate numbers 
in proportion. 

A one-horse-power will drive 12 power-looms, with warping, 
sizing, eve 



CALCULATION OF HORSEPOWER. 47 

HORSE-POWER. 

Smeaton states that a strong horse is able to lift, by means 
of a pump, 250 hogsheads of water, of 63 gallons each, 10 
feet high, in one hour at the maximum. Twelve gallons of 
water weigh 100 pounds. Thus, the actual weight of water 
lifted, is at the rate of 22,000 pounds raised one foot per 
minute. The standard of a horse-power, as above stated, is 
32,000 pounds, raised one foot high per minute. 



WATER-WHEEL AT LOWELL. 

At Lowell, Mass., 24 cubic feet of water per second, with 
a fall of 30 feet, has been found sufficient to operate 4000 
spindles, with all the preparatory machinery for spinning 
cotton yarn, No. 30 's, together with the looms necessary for 
weaving the same. This makes an average of about 100 
spindles to each horse-power. 



DEAD AND LIVE SPINDLES DIFFERENCE IN POWER. 

The spindles in use at Lowell are all of the description de« 
nominated dead spindles, requiring more power to operate 
them than the common live throstle spindle. The difference 
of power required for the dead spindle, is as 4000 to 4400. 
Calling 4000 dead, equal to 4400 live spindles, the power 
required to operate them, together with the necessary pre- 
paratory machinery, will be 

Equal to that of 44 horses 

144 looms, (at 12 looms to the horse,). 12 " 

56 " 



48 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

A calculation of the efficient power of the quantity of 
,vater used, 24 cubic feet per second, with a fall of 30 feet ; 
as here given, to show that the estimates of the power re- 
quired to operate an equal amount of machinery, will nearly 
coincide with that actually imparted by the water-wheels. 



CALCULATION OE HORSE-POWER IN WATER-WHEELS. 

Twenty-four cubic feet of water per second is equal to 
1440 cubic feet per minute. 1440 x 62 £, (the latter is the 
weight in pounds of each cubic foot of water,) gives in pounds 
90,000 X 30 feet, the fall of the water; this is = 2,700,000 
pounds descending one foot per minute ; deduct one-third for 
the loss of power by friction and otherwise, in applying the 
weight of water to the wheel, &c, and dividing the remainder 
by 32,000 pounds, (Bolton and Watt's standard,) gives 56j 
horse-power. At the Hamilton Mills, in Lowell, where the 
fall of water is only about 12 feet, the same quantity of ma- 
chinery is operated by using 60 cubic feet of water per second. 

The 56 \ horse-power required for one of the above mills, 
would be sufficient to put in motion 15,600 mule spindles, 
with preparation for spinning yarn as fine as No. 110, or 
above 10,000 mule spindles for spinning yarn for twist and 
filling, as fine as No. 48, together with 400 looms to weave 
the same. 



STEAM-ENGINE IN AN ENGLISH FACTORY. 

It is partly in consequence of the great expense of the 
power necessary to operate throstle spindles, that the throstle 
twist commands a higher relative price than yarn of the same 
number spun on mules. One of the most extensive cotton 



PICKING MACHINE. 49 

mills in Manchester, England, contains 90,000 mule spindles, 
employed in spinning yarn, from 200 to 250 hanks to the 
pound, propelled by two steam-engines, rated at less than 80 
horse-power each. Those two engines use from four to five 
tons of coal per day : good coal for this purpose costs in 
Manchester about $2 20 per ton. The steam-power, there- 
fore, does not cost much in proportion to the work performed. 



STEAM-ENGINE IN AN AMERICAN FACTORY. 

One of the mills at Gloucester, New Jersey, opposite to 
Philadelphia, contains 15,000 mule spindles, and 315 power 
looms, spinning yarn from No. 26 to 30. The machinery in 
this factory is driven by a steam-engine made by I. P. Morris 
& Co., Philadelphia, which consumes four and one-half tons 
of anthracite coal in twelve working hours. This result is 
still better than the above. It does as much spinning as the 
English mill, and runs 315 looms in addition, which is equal 
to 30 horse-power more than the English engine 



WILLEY, OR PICKING MACHINE. 

This machine is used for opening and mixing the cotton 
and waste, and preparing it for the spreading machine. When 
well constructed, on a proper plan, they are very useful ma- 
chines, and of great service in opening, mixing, and cleaning 
cotton. We shall describe two kinds, constructed on quite 
different plans. 
5 



50 



AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 



M CREDY S WILLEY. 

Ft. In. 

Length, of frame 4 

Width of frame 3 6 

Diameter of cylinder 2 8 

Width of cylinder 2 5 J 

Number of steel teeth set in cylinder 

Length of teeth * 4|- 

Square taper part, sunk in cylinder 2 

Round taper part, that projects and opens the 

cotton 2 1 

Thickness of round part at shoulder \ 



Teetk 



196 



This Machine is driven by the following Wheels. 



Ft. In. 

3 

1 
1 8 

1 



Diam. of pulley on main horizon, shaft, 
Driving a counter-shaft by pulley of. . 

Driver-pulley on counter-shaft 

Diameter of pulley on axle of willey. 
Diam. of pulley on other end of axle. 2 J 

Driving a pulley of 14 

A pinion attached to this pulley 

Working into a fluted roller wheel of, 
Pinions on fluted roller wheel, each . . 
Carrier steed, or intermediate wheel . . 
Pinion on feeding-cloth roller, and 
length of feed 3 6 



Teeth. 



26 

120 

30 

30 

28 



Rev. 

82 
246 
246 
410 



* These teeth are turned off to a smooth obtuse point ; they are 
placed in the cylinder twill fashion, or zig-zag, thus, 



PICKING MACHINE. 51 

DESCRIPTION OF A WILLEY. 

There are thin slips of wood screwed to the cloth, about 
nine inches apart, and running on the surface of the cloth, 
across its whole width. These are to keep the cloth in shape, 
and prevent it running from one side to the other of the feed- 
ing frame. The cloth is liable to run, if strips of wood are 
not fastened on. Squaring the roller, or attaching cords or 
leather straps to the sides of the cloth, will seldom prevent 
it from running irregularly. There is a coarse, curved wire 
grating, or else a grating of tin tubes, half an inch in dia- 
meter, fixed under the cylinder, reaching from the fluted roll- 
ers to the other end of the frame, at which the cotton comes 
out : this is at the distance of about two inches from the points 
of the teeth in the cylinder. This grating is for the purpose 
of letting seeds, dirt, and sand drop from the cotton, as it 
passes through into the receiving box. These machines will 
open and clean properly 2000 pounds of cotton per day, if a 
proper degree of attention be paid to them. 

DESCRIPTION OF A PATENT WILLEY. 

This machine is in general use, and seems to have the pre- 
ference, on account of the small space it occupies, as well as 
for the simplicity of its construction. With the exception 
of a pulley on each of the two axles, it has neither wheels, 
rollers, nor pulleys about it. It is a very compact little ma- 
chine, of the following dimensions : — 

Length of framing, or boxing of machine . . 

Width of framing 

Diameter of pulley on main shaft 

Diameter of driver-pulley on counter-shaft . 
Diameter of " " 



Ft. In. 

3 


Eev. 


1 6 . 




3 


. 100 


10 . 


. 360 


2 4 . 


. 1680 



52 



AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 



The working apparatus, enclosed in the oblong square box, 
stiffened with cast-iron framing, are two stout iron or steel 
axles, running across the frame or box ; they are on a level, 
and parallel with each other. There are four stout steel teeth 
in each axle, about ten inches long, five-eighths of an inch 
thick, and round in the middle. These teeth run through 
the axles, and form eight teeth in each axle ; they are round, 
and tapered off a little, so as to form an obtuse, smooth point. 
These teeth are so arranged, as to pass between the spaces of 
the opposite row, in the manner shown in the annexed figure, 

















n 
















u 
. [] 
















LJ 



There are also four setts of teeth, thinner than those just 
alluded to, fixed or screwed into four wooden bars, which run 
across, and are inside of the casing, parallel to each other, and 
to the cylinders and axles. These teeth pass between the 
teeth on the axles! their thin edges facing towards the axles. 
They assist in holding the cotton, while the running teeth 
open, loosen, and clear it. Cotton is fed into the cylinder 
through an aperture in the top of the casing, having a back- 
ward slant, 2 \ inches wide and 14 inches long. The cotton 
is driven out by the rapid motion of the cylinders, which both 
run in the same direction. It is necessary that this machine 
should be driven at a great speed, or it will not open the cotton 
and drive it out in a proper manner. They will not operate 
properly at a less speed than 1600 revolutions per minute. 
A grating is placed under the axles, to permit seeds, dirt, 



WILLEYING COTTON. 53 

and sand to pass from the cotton. This should be made of 
tin tubes, three-eighths of an inch in diameter, and placed at 
the distance of about one-fourth of an inch asunder. Smooth, 
round wooden rods or bars, placed in the same manner, would 
answer the same purpose on any of these machines; the 
chief object of this grating being to let as much dirt as pos- 
sible pass from the raw material. Many of these machines 
do not work well ; this is apparent to any one who has seen 
the vast quantity of rough, heavy seeds and foreign matter, 
which is thrown out of the cotton by the beaters of the spread- 
ing machine, after it has passed through the patent willey. 
One of these machines, if properly attended, will clean from 
2500 to 3000 pounds of cotton per day. 



REMARKS ON WILLEYING COTTON. 
These machines should be set level, square, and solid. All 
the bolts and nuts should be examined, and carefully screwed 
up, and everything made secure. The box or bin into which 
the cotton passes on leaving the willey, should have round 
wooden bars, as thick as the handle of a sweeping-brush, 
laid on its bottom, and in such a manner fixed to the bin m 
a movable frame, that they can be raised about three inches 
from its floor. These bars should be separated about a half, 
or three-fourths of an inch; and, if not round, should be 
bevelled off on the top, to prevent the dirt from lodging on 
them, — they should have a triangular form. It is almost in- 
credible what a vast amount of dirt and sand will be found 
under this grated floor, when it is removed for the purpose 
of cleaning out the apartment, which should be done ever^ 
Saturday. 



54 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

MIXING RAW COTTON. 

If these machines are constructed with feeding-rolh rs, they 
should be as near as possible to the teeth of the cylinder, 
leaving just space sufficient to prevent their coming in contact 
when the cylinders are running at full speed. From six to 
eight bales of cotton should be opened at one time, and an 
equal quantity taken out of each bale ; this must then be 
shaken or spread out on the floor, in alternate layers, one over 
another, and formed into a pile convenient to the feeder of 
the willey, care being taken to mix the cotton thoroughly. 
This plan may be pursued until the bales are emptied, whea 
the same process is renewed. 

These remarks have an equal application to those factories 
in which no willey is used, and in which the cotton is placed 
on the spreading-machine or the cards, without having passed 
through the preliminary operation of willeying. 

MIXING THE WASTE. 

The waste which is made throughout the factory can here 
be mixed with the raw cotton in the most regular manner, 
rendering it suitable for the different kinds of yarn spun in 
the factory. The finer the quality of the yarn, however, the 
less waste will it bear ; and very little is put into fine yarn, 
unless it be good waste from the fronts of the cards, or some 
of the best drawing-frame waste, from the first head, because 
waste has a direct tendency to weaken the yarn. 

WASTE WEAKENS THE YARN. 

The greater the number of operations the waste has passed 
trough, the more its weakening tendency is increased. The 



WILLEYING COTTON. 55 

best waste is that of the card-flyings, where there are no 
screens to the cards, cylinder strippings, and the drawing-frame 
waste, particularly that made at the first head. The waste 
from speeders, mule and throstle waste, if soft, and roving 
waste, should be mixed in with the cotton for coarse yarn or 
filling. All the waste that is fit for use should be carefully 
collected each evening, and every particle mixed with the dif- 
ferent qualities of cotton, to be used the next day in the ma- 
nufacture of the various descriptions of yarn. This . should 
be done with the utmost regularity ; and a proper attention 
to this process will be the means of keeping the roving more 
uniform and regular, which is an essential object. The use 
of too large a quantity of waste at one time, will make the 
stuff and yarn finer and weaker, and cause it to spin badly. 
This subject requires the careful attention of the manager 
and master-carder, as much as anything else ', and it is next 
in importance to preventing the formation of waste. The 
person who attends the willey or picker, should take the cotton 
from top to bottom of the pile, beginning at one end or side 
of it, so that all the different layers may be cut through, and 
an equal portion of each taken. In feeding those machines 
which have feeding-rollers, the attendant should be careful to 
spread the cotton regularly and evenly on the feeding-cloth ; 
for, if some portions pass in thick lumps, and it is laid on 
thinly in other places, the lumps have the bad effect of chok- 
ing the rollers, and the loose parts fly through without being 
acted upon by the teeth of the cylinder. 



• GRATING TO BE KEPT CLEAR. 

The grating below the cylinder must be kept free from 
flyings, waste, and dirt, so as to allow a free passage for seeds, 



56 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

eand, and other impurities from the cotton. The mouth of 
the machine should be carefully kept free and clear of cotton, 
for if this passage to the box, through any inattention, be- 
comes filled up, the cotton will be carried around and around 
6y the cylinder until it becomes completely spoiled, or strung, 
as it is termed in ihe cotton-spinners' phraseology. 



STRINGING COTTON. 

Stringing renders cotton altogether unfit for carding and 
for yarn, although it should be thrown into the waste-bag. 
Great care should therefore be used, to keep this machine and 
all the journals clean ; the journals should be carefully oiled 
every one or two hours, as occasion requires, all the cotton- 
waste kept in order, and everything placed snugly in their 
respective positions. 



BETTER NOT TO MIX WASTE WITH COTTON. 

The best cotton factories do not mix- their waste with the 
good cotton, for the reason that it always proves to be more 
or less injurious to the quality of the yarn. In coarse num- 
bers, say from No. 10 to 15, waste may be used; but, in 
numbers above 20, it should never be mixed in the yarn. In 
these cases, the waste should be carded, and applied to the 
spinning of coarse filling. Coarse cards, without fiats, are 
used for carding waste. 



SPREADTNG-MACHINE. 57 



SPREADING-MACHINE. 

Tins machine is one of vast importance in the manufacture 
of cotton, both for the correctness of its operations, and as a 
labour-saving machine. If, in the performance of manufac- 
turing operations, machinery is superior to manual labour, 
then the spreading-machine bears off the palm of perfection 
in mechanism. To produce the best result with a spreading- 
machine, it is requisite that particular attention should be 
paid to the proper mode of managing it. The regularity and 
precision of the work in the various branches of carding, 
drawing, roving, and spinning, is in a great measure depen- 
dent on the careful manner in which the cotton is weighed 
and spread to this machine. 



MACHINES WITH THREE BEATERS. 

Spreading-machines constructed with three beaters, on a 
level with each other, and a rolling wire cylinder placed after 
each beater to lay down the cotton, may be considered very 
good machines. They are provided at the first beater with 
four fluted steel rollers, placed in pairs, thus forming two 
setts. These setts are placed at a distance of two and a half 
inches apart, measuring from centre to centre. The draught 
between these two setts of rollers is in the proportion of 1 to 
2|- or 2£ ; this is added to the draught in the machine. The 
other two beaters have each one pair of fluted rollers to deliver 
the cotton to them. At the end of the machine there are 
two pair of cast-iron calender rollers, three inches in diameter. 
The two rollers which carry the card-lap roller, are cast-iron 



58 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

cylinders, hollow and fluted, about seven inches in diameter. 
All the rollers have a heavy pressure on them, by means of 
strong wire springs. The machine is either built entirely of 
iron, or of heavy ash framing. Each cylinder consists of an 
axle and two beaters, and is provided with a wooden cover. 
The other parts of the machine are made of wrought and 
cast iron, and must be strong, and well put together. 



SPEED OP MACHINE. 

A spreading-machine may be driven at a speed of 1675 
revolutions per minute, to keep twenty-four cards in lap-rollers. 
If more cards, say twenty-eight, are required to be fed, the 
speed of the beaters may be increased to 1900 ; the feeding 
being also proportionally increased, to enable the machine to 
keep the cards running. The speed of the card-feeding rollers 
must be retarded in proportion to the increased weight of the 
lap. The speed of the spreader-feeding and calender rollers 
is often increased at the same time with the speed of the ma- 
chine ; but this is injudicious, as it does not allow of proper 
time to weigh and feed the cotton as it should be done. 
Irregularity is always the result of too great a speed. It is 
better for the machine, if the speed of the beaters does not 
exceed 1500 or 1600 revolutions per minute, and the other 
parts in the same proportion. There is a medium in the 
speed of these machines, to exceed which proves to be inju- 
rious to both the machine and the work ; this is, however, 
often done, regardless of the consequences. It is certainly a 
decided advantage to drive the machine at as great a speed as 
is consistent with the proper performance of the work ; but 
"t is an erroneous idea, to suppose that the true method of 
•deriving profit from these machines is ? to overdrive them in 



£PREADING-MACHINE. 59 

such a maimer as to make waste, and wear out good machinery 
in the course of a few years. The contrary effect will result 
from such a pernicious system. 



DIMENSIONS OF A SPREADING MACHINE. 

Ft. In. ll»v 

Length of a spreading-machine, including 

feeding-table 19 6 . . 

Width of spreading-machine for 30 in. cards, 3 6 . . 
Diam. of driving-pulley on main horizontal 

shaft 3 6 . . 100 

Diameter of driven pulley on top shaft .... 10 < . 420 

Diameter of driving pulley on top shaft ... 1 6 . . 420 
Diameter of driven pulley on the beaters. . . 4 . . 1890 

Length of feeding-cloth 12 

Width of feeding- cloth (for 30 inch cardsj, 2 4 . . 
The feeding-cloth is divided into 3 spaces, 

by black lines ; length of each 4 

Pulley on the end of top shaft^ which drives 
feeding-rollers, rolling wire cylinders, ca- 
lenders, rollers, &c 4 . . 

On each marked space on the feeding-cloth a certain weight 
of cotton is spread, varying according to circumstances from 
one pound two ounces, to two pounds two ounces. 

The pulley which drives the feeding-rollers may be in- 
creased in size by nailing leather around it, if it is found ad- 
vantageous to feed stronger. It drives all the rollers, by 
means of side, bevel, and spur gearing. By diminishing the 
size of the pulley, the speed of the rollers will be decreased, 
and they will feed and deliver slower; an increase of its sho 
will produce a contrary effect. 



60 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

REMARKS ON SPREADING COTTON, 

TIME TO EEED. 

The bad effects resulting from over-driving the beaters, 
and increasing the size of the pulley, have been previously 
alluded to. An extraordinary speed does not allow the ope- 
ratives time to weigh and feed the cotton properly ; they are 
too much hurried to do it well, and make good picking of the 
different weighings. If the boy at the scales takes time to 
weigh and feed the cotton correctly, the cotton on the feeding- 
cloth will be run through in the same, or nearly the same 
time. If a thin place is made on the feeding-cloth, there will 
be one in the card-lap ) for, as a part of the marked space of 
four feet is run empty or thin, the cotton will be too thick on 
the remaining portion of the space. 

consequences oe bad feeding. 

To remedy the improper spreading of the cotton en the 
feeding-cloth, the person in attendance takes up a handful of 
cotton at random, puts it on the scales, and throws back into 
the cotton-box the overplus. It very often happens that all 
the weighing is crowded on too short a feeding space, when 
the machine is running very rapidly, without any order or 
regularity, there not being sufficient time to lay it on properly, 
It is impossible to make even or fair yarn, when work is done 
in this manner. The feeding-table should stand next to the 
cotton-box of the willey ; it then prevents the trouble of car- 
rying cotton backwards and forwards, at the risk of dro 
it about the floor. 



SPREADING COTTON. 61 



WEIGHING THE COTTON. 



The scales should be suspended over a bench, fixed into a 
part of the cotton-box ; and the picking-house should be so 
arranged as to facilitate the ingress of the cotton bales. All 
the machines should be placed as conveniently as possible ; 
the calender rollers should also be arranged near a passage 
for conveying the lap-rollers to the cards. The picking de- 
partment is a very important branch of a large cotton factory, 
but is too often overlooked, being regarded by many manu- 
facturers as of very little consequence. Those who have had 
much experience in superintending cotton factories, know that 
it is of great moment and utility to have a convenient and 
systematic arrangement of this kind of machinery. 



FEEDING-CLOTH. 

The feeding-cloth of this, as well as all other machines, 
should be always provided with light strips of wood, fastened 
to, and across the full width of the cloth. These strips may 
be about three-fourths of an inch wide, and one-fourth of an 
inch thick in the middle, rounded on the top. and thinned off 
to the edges ; they are put on the surface of the cloth at a 
distance of ten or twelve inches apart, or close together, with 
three little wood-screws to each strip. The heads of the 
screws should be on the under-side of the cloth, and provided 
with a small leather washer of stout calf-skin, about five- 
eighths of an inch in diameter. These strips keep the cloth 
in good order, and prevent it from gathering into folds in the 
middle, or on either side; which is always otherwise the case, 
even when leather straps or cords are attached to the sides of 
the cloth. There is nothing equal to strips of light wood for 
ti 



62 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

keeping a feeding-cloth in good working order : many aa 
hour's trouble and vexation may be avoided by it. 



ALTERING THE WEIGHT OF THE LAP. 

Altering the weight of the lap on the spreader, depends 
on the changes which are necessary to be made on the cards, 
drawing-frames, speeders, or in the yarns. It is a bad prac- 
tice to work with too heavy laps, they are liable to choke the 
rollers and beaters, and the cotton will not be properly pre- 
pared and cleaned ; besides, it will cause too heavy carding, 
which should be avoided by all means. 



CAUSES OF DIFFERENCE IN WEIGHT. 

The stuff varies sometimes considerably in the carding- 
room, getting sometimes too light, and at other times too 
heavy, owing either to a change in cotton, a change in the 
weather, a diminution or increase of the quantity of waste, 
or careless weighing, and sometimes it is impossible to account 
for it by any known data. If the drawing-frame pinions fail 
to correct any of the above irregularities, a difference of more 
than one or two ounces should not be made in the lap at one 
time. As evenness and regularity of the lap is of the utmost 
importance for producing a good article of yarn, strict atten- 
tion must be paid to correct weighing and feeding; for, if the 
cotton is correctly weighed, and evenly spread to the spread- 
ing machine, it must produce even work on the cards; pro- 
always, that all things are in good order about the 
spreader and the cards. It is advisable, therefore, to examine 
the springs frequently, to see that none of the spring- weights 
rise out of order, and that no pinions or wheels are missing 



SPREADING COTTON. 63 

gear in consequence of broken teeth. Bolts and nuts should 
be properly screwed up ; in short, everything should be kept 
in perfect running order. The axles of the beaters must be 
kept free from cotton on the inside, or else it will cause the 
cotton to run to one side or the other of the lap-roller. At- 
tention must be paid to keeping the machine solid, level, and 
square. 

OILING AND CLEANING. 

It is necessary that the machine should be kept as clean as 
possible, and well and carefully oiled. The beaters should 
be oiled every hour or two, and the slow-running parts twice 
each day. Negligence of spreading-machines and pickers in 
this respect, has often been productive of the most disastrous 
consequences. 

FIRE PRODUCED BY FRICTION. 

Fire is produced by friction, caused here by dirt and want 
of careful and regular oiliDg. It is a well-known fact, that 
the majority of the fires which have occurred in cotton facto- 
ries, had their origin in the picking-rooms. This is not an 
astonishing thing, when the tremendous velocity of the beaters 
in some factories is taken into consideration. Cotton may be 
ignited on the roller of a spreading-machine, if waste be 
wound around the end of a fluted roller. The meshes of the 
gauze in the rolling wire cylinders should be cleaned off twice 
each week, and the whole of the machine cleaned two or 
three times each day. All the journals must be kept clean, 
and everything about the machine kept in the best possibly 
order. 



64 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

SPARE PINIONS. 

A good supply of spare pinions and wheels for the spread- 
ing machine, should always be kept on hand ; particularly of 
the description used on the fluted rollers, and the carrier-studs 
belonging to them, as these are most liable to wear out. If 
a supply of spare pinions is not provided, the employment of 
the operatives in a large factory may, at any moment, be 
suspended for want of them. It would be a good plan to 
have an additional spreading-machine. 



CARDING. 

Carding is the next operation in a cotton factory. Cards 
are used to disentangle the fibres of cotton, and lay them 
lengthwise and parallel with each other. Carding consists 
in the reversed action of two opposite surfaces, which are 
studded with angled wire hooks. These hooks must be made 
of good, hard-drawn iron wire, to render them stiff and elastic. 
In former years, cards were merely made of small straight 
boards, studded with sharp wire points, and having handles ; 
these were operated by hand : now, they are encased cylinders, 
driven by steam or water power. These machines consist of 
one large, a^d often of many small cylinders. If the large 
cylinder is partially surrounded by small cylinders, the card 
is intended for coarse yarn, or coarse wool or cotton ; if it 
contains bnt one or two small cylinders, it is used for fine 
cotton and fine yarn. This machine receives the coil of lap 
from the spreading-machine, which is as wide as the card, and 



CARDING. 



65 



forms it into a lamina, in which the fibres of cotton are more 
or less parallel, according to the work. Coarse yarn requires 
the cotton to be carded but once ; but, for fine yarn, it is ne- 
cessary to repeat the operation. 

DIMENSIONS OF CARDS. 



THIRTY INCH CARD. 

Ft. In. 

Driving-pulley on main shaft .... 1 4 

Driven pulley on card-axle 1 

Pulley on card-axle, driving crank, 

likerin, and workers 1 4 

Pulley on crank 7-| 

Pulley on likerin 9 

Pulley on card-axle driving doffer- 

shaft 4 

Pulley on doffer-shaft 1 

Pinion on other end of doifer-shaft, 
Driving doffer by large wheel of. . 

Bevel on end of doffer-axle 

Driving side-shaft by bevel of . . . . 
Pinion on lower end of side-shaft. 
Driving fluted roller by wheel of . 

Diameter of fluted roller 1 1 

Diameter of doffer 1 9 

Diameter of likerin 11 

Diameter of main cylinder 3 6 

Width of main cylinder 2 7 

Circumference of main cylinder . . 10 6 

Extreme length of card 10 6 

Width of card, including pulleys . 3 6 
Three workers on each card; diam. 6 

Three strippers on each card; diam. 3 

6* 



23 
228 
42 
42 
21 
67 



Rev. 

100 
133 

133 

286 
237 

133 
44 
44 

137 



66 



AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

Ft. In. Teeth 



Diameter of pulleys on worker and 

stripper 6f 

Six flats — 3 next to feed rollers, 
and 3 next to doffer 



WIDE CARD. 

Ft. 

Diam. driving-pulleys on main shaft 1 
Diam, of driven pulleys on card-axle, 1 

Width of face of pulley 

Diameter of main cylinder 3 

Width of main cylinder 3 

Diameter of doffer 1 

Diameter of likerin 

Diameter of pulley on likerin .... 
Diameter of workers, (2 of these) . . 
Diameter of strippers, (2 of these) . 

Diameter of worker-pulleys 

Diameter of stripper-pulleys 

Diam. of pulley on main cylin. axle, 
Driving doffer-shaft by pulley of . . . 
Pinion on other end of doffer-shaft. 

Driving doffer by wheel of 

Bevel on other end of doffer 

Bevel on top of side-shaft 

Bevel on bottom of side-shaft ..... 

Bevel on fluted rollers 

Diameter of fluted rollers 

Pinions on fluted rollers 

Carrier-wheel to feeding-roller 

Diam. of feeding-roller 

Pinion on feeding-roller 



In. 


Teeth. 


Eev. 


8 .. 




. . 82 

.. 13a 


2| .. 




. . 


2 




. , 


If .. 




. , 


8* .. 




. . 


10 .. 




. , 


9 .. 




. , 


5f .. 




= • 


3 .. 




. . 


6 .. 




, . 


7 . . 




. 


4 .. 




, , 


9 .. 




, 


. . 


18 


. 




228 


. 




42 . 


. 




42 


, 


. . 


23 


. 


. , 


67 . 


. 


n .. 




. 


. . 


14 . 


. 


. . 


90 . 


, 


i\ .. 






. , 


30 , 


, 



CARDING. Of 



ANOTHER WIDE CARD. 

Ft. la. Teeth. 



Diam. of pulley on main cylinder axle, inside' 
the frame, driving crank, likerin, and strip- 
pers 1 4j 

Diam. of pulley on doffer, driving workers ... 8 

Diam. of pulley on crank-shaft, driving heads. 3 

Diam. of pulley on crank 8 

Diameter of pulley on the front-roller driving- 3 

head 

Pinion on front roller of driving-head . . 18 

Pinion on back roller of driving-head . . 40 

Intermediate carrier, between the front and 

back ..30 

Diam. of front under roller l£ 

Diam. of back under roller 1 

Distance of rollers from centre to centre 1 J 

Diam. of pulley on front roller, which drives 

the calender-rollers 2 J 

Diam. of pulley on calender-roller 3f 

Diam. of pulley on calender-roller If- 

Number of top cards, 10; 5 on each side of 
the workers and strippers. 

Extreme length of card 10 

Extreme width of card 54 

Diam. of different carrying-pulleys 6| 

These cards are of an excellent description, and when kops 
in order work extremely well. 



68 



AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 



ANOTHER TWENTY-FOUR INCH CARD. 

Ft. 

Diam. of driving-pulley on m. shaft, 1 
Diarn. of driven pulley on card-axle, 1 

Diam. of main cylinder 3 

Width of main cylinder 2 

Diam. small pulley on end m. cylin., 
Driving doffer-shaft by pulley of . . . 

Pinion on other end of axle 

Driving doffer by wheel of 

Diameter of doffer 1 

Bevel on other end of doffer 

Driving side-shaft by bevel on top . 

Bevel on bottom of side-shaft 

Driving fluted rollers by bevel of . . 

Diameter of fluted roller 

Pinions on fluted roller 

Carrier-wheel to feeding-rollers .... 

Pinion on feeding-rollers 

Diam. of pinion on feeding-rollers. . 
Diameter of pulley on main cylind., 
driving crank, likerin and strippers, 1 

Diameter of likerin 

Diameter of pulley of likerin 

Diameter of crank-pulley 

Diam. pulley on doffer, drives workers 
Diam. of workers, (2 in number,) . . 
Diam. of pulleys on workers, (2,) . . 
Diam. of strippers, (2 in number,) . 
Diam. of pulleys on strippers, (2,) . 

Extreme length of card 10 

Extreme width of card 4 



In. 


Tteth. 


Rev. 


8 .. 




. 82 
. 136 


H .. 






If . 






2 . 






llf . 






. 


28 . 




. 


210 . 




8j . 






• 


45 . 
45 . 




• 


26 . 
. 75 . 




H • 


. 11 . 




. 


. 96 . 




. 


. 14 . 




5* . 






3 . 






10 . 






71 . 






7i . 






7 . 






61 . 






61 . 






3| . 






7 . 








. 





CARDING. 69 

There are seven top-cards, or flats, on each card; three 
next to the feed-rollers, and four next to the doffer. 

CALCULATION OP THE DRAUGHT ON THESE CARDS. 

Diameter of doffer, including wire, (driven,) .... 21 inches 

Bevel on end of doffer, (driver,) 45 teeth. 

Bevel on top of side-shaft, (driven,) 45 

Bevel on bottom of side-shaft, (driver,^ 26 

Bevel on fluted rollers, (driven,) 75 

Diameter of fluted rollers, (driver,) 1 §• inch. 

Drivers. Driven. 

45 75 

26 45 

270 375 

90 300 

1170 3375 

9 = f diam. of fluted roller. 189 — » p di am< f doffer 

10530 30375 

27000 

3375 

10530)637875(60.57 
63180 

60750 
52650 

81000 
73710 

7290 remainder. 
Draught of the card, 1 into 60.57, or a little over 60£. 



TO AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

REMARKS ON CARDS AND CARDING. 

BELTS AND JOURNALS INSIDE THE CARDS. 

The cards alluded to have the pulleys and belts inside the 
framing and covers ; this is not a good plan, as the "belts are 
always catching and throwing out flyings, and the journals of 
the likerins, workers, &c, become choked with the flyings. 
The belts and journals should be free from flyings, sand, and 
other matter. The workers and strippers should be placed 
next to the feeding-rollers, and the top-cards must be placed 
next to the doffer. Workers and strippers have a tendency 
to leave the cotton loose and irregular on the main cylinder, 
and to let all the large motes and dirt pass on to the doffer, 
and fill up its teeth ; whereas, when the top-cards are all 
next to the doffer, they smooth down the rough and straggling 
fibres, and perform good service, by seizing upon all motes, 
and other matter, that should be caught and held fast before 
it passes to the doffer. Carders and cotton-spinners are di- 
vided in opinion as to the merit of the different plans, some 
say that the fiats catch too much of the good cotton which is 
left loose on the cylinder by the worker and stripper. They 
prefer to let it go on to the doffer in a loose, furry state. 
Some carders and managers have had fancies and ticklers 
placed on the main cylinder, near to the doffer, for this pur- 
pose, and pretend that flats keep the cotton too light and 
loose on the main cylinder, and that, by their improvement, 
the cards will only require stripping once in each week, in- 
stead of four times per day, on cards with flats. They say 
that the flats should all bo placed next to the feeding-rollers, 
for there they will do the most service. 



CARDS AND CARDING. 71 



USE OF FLATS. 



That the flats do the most work when nearest the feeding- 
rollers, no person will certainly deny ; but, that they do good 
service, is not equally true, as they catch the cotton imme- 
diately after it leaves the likerin, before it has passed on to 
the workers and strippers, which take it from one to the other, 
carding it properly, and returning it to the main, well finished; 
while the flats, when placed next to the fluted rollers, soon 
become filled up, and are of no further service until they are 
again stripped. Such an arrangement actually has a bad re ■ 
suit, as it causes the card to nap, when the teeth of the flats 
become filled up with cotton ; though there may be cards that 
work very well on either plan. Cards similar to those de- 
scribed, having some flats on each side, when in proper order, 
make most excellent work, and may be considered as good as 
any other kind, with the exception of having the journals and 
belts inside of the framing. 

GENERAL REMARKS. 

The greatest advantages may be derived from a careful and 
skilful management of this very important branch of the 
cotton manufacture. The preliminary basis of good fine yarn 
must originate in the carding-room. If in any of the various 
processes through which the cotton necessarily passes in this 
department, it becomes in the slightest degree injured, ne» 
subsequent operation can correct or remedy the evil ; the yarn 
is inevitably spoiled. 

Having given the dimensions of different parts of some 
good plans of cards, and also directions for the attendance and 
management of the willey and spreading-machine, we sha]3 



72 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

now proceed to lay down plain practical rules for putting cards 
in good working order, together with some useful directions 
and instructions as to the most advantageous system of operat- 
ing them. 

TURNING UP A CARD. 

Before turning up a card preparatory to clothing it, always 
remove previously the heads of the wooden cylinders, and 
screw up tight all the stave-bolts; also, screw up all the joint- 
bolts firmly, and see that the frame stands square, level, and 
perfectly solid. The doffer, likerin, fluted rollers, workers, 
and strippers, must be made to stand perfectly parallel with 
the main cylinder. In turning up, all parts of the card that 
require turning must have a very true, level, and firm rest. 
A crescent-shaped tool, of good steel, is the best for turning 
up cards. 

SLEDING-REST. 

The screw-slide-rests for turning up cards, are the best and 
most correct. The sliding head in which the tool is set, rests 
on a stout frame of cast-iron, as long as the width of the card- 
frame, to which it is screwed fast by clamps. The two pa- 
rallel bars of this frame are about seven inches apart ; the 
tops of these bars are finished off as slides for the movable 
head, which is propelled from one side to the other of the 
card by a screw-shaft, running through the whole length of 
the rest-frame, with a handle or wheel at each end of the pro- 
pelling screw. There is also a slide and screw on the movable 
head in which the cutting-tool is fastened, for regulating the 
contact of the tool with the cylinder or roller to be turned. 
This operation is performed with the nicest accuracy. When 
the rest is placed parallel with the cylinder-axle, and the cutter 



CARDS AND CARDING. 73 

is in good order, a card-cylinder can be finished with despatch 
and great exactness. No factory should be without thib' useful 
and necessary machine. Many cards have been, and are still 
injured by miserable, shackling fixtures, used in turning up 
cylinders. Stands and other fixtures must be attached to the 
grinding-machine, for turning off the likerins, workers, and 
strippers, which is done with the same rest and tools. 



WOOD FOR CARD-CYLINDERS. 

If good care be taken of cards, the frame-work and cylinders 
may last thirty or forty years. During that time they may 
require to be turned off ten or fifteen times, according to cir- 
cumstances, owing to the kind of wood of which the cards are 
built. If the wood has not been well seasoned, if it is ex- 
posed to damp air, or to great heat, accidents, &c, or if there 
is any considerable quantity of the substance cut away iu 
turning, they will soon be worn down to the bolt-heads; the 
staves will become so thin that they will be liable to cast or 
warp, and open in the joints with every change of the atmo- 
tpheric temperature. Hence the necessity of having a first- 
rate apparatus for turning card-cylinders to advantage. 



IRON DOFFERS. 

Cards are now generally constructed with cast-iron doffeis. 
This is an excellent and valuable improvement. Zinc, how- 
ever, is preferable to iron, as it may be tacked. The doffers 
and cylinders should have cast-steel axles, and the cylinders 
should be exactly balanced ; for, if they are heavier on oue 
side than on the other, it will produce a considerable vibra- 
tion when they are run fast. Besides, it has a tendency to 
7 



AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 



wear the journals off at the heavy side, and of course cause 
the cylinder to run crooked, and thereby spoil the carding on 
the machines. This will inevitably be the result of a few 
years use of iron doffers that are incorrectly balanced. 



CLOTHING THE CARDS. 

Care must be taken, in putting the sheet-cards on the main 
cylinder, to fasten them on as tight as they will bear without 
tearing the leather, or pulling the tacks out of the backs of 
the sheets. Especial attention is required if the cards are 
made of calf-skin, as this, if not put on very tight, is very 
apt to stretch and become slack in grinding. These cards 
will cause a great deal of trouble afterwards, by the leather 
and teeth rising up in the middle of the sheets, and rubbing 
against the doffer-teeth. "When this occurs, there remains no 
remedy but to strip off the sheets, turn up the cylinders, and 
re-cover them with the same sheets. In turning up the cy- 
linders and rollers, be very careful to take as little as possible 
off the wood, just sufficient to make them true, and no more. 

The sheets are put on with good stout eight or ten ounce 
tacks, driven at the distance of about seven-eighths of an inch 
apart. Cylinders made of mahogany or bay-wood, the kind 
most commonly used, may be covered with six ounce tacks; 
and, for pine cylinders, ten ounce tacks are large enough.. 
The holes in the sheets should be pierced by a tool, having 
three, four, or five points, each point being separated seven- 
eighths of an inch from the others. The tacks must be 
driven in a straight line, at equal distances and opposite to 
each other in the sheets, so as to form regular rings around 
the cylinder ; this has a neat and workmanlike appearance, 
and is correct in principle. We can form a comparatively 



CARDS AND . CARDING. To 

correct opinion of a carder's abilities and skill in arranging 
and keeping his room in snug order, by observing the manner 
in which he covers his cards. When covering the doffer, put 
on the fillet-cards as tight as possible without breaking them. 
If the doffer be made of cast-iron, it will be advisable to give 
it two good coats of white lead, not so thick as to prevent it 
from being laid on very even. A portion of copal varnish 
should be mixed with the second coot, as it prevents the paint 
from becoming too hard. The backs of the fillet-teeth will 
imbed themselves in this coating of paint, and keep the 
fillets from running slack each time the card is ground, which 
they are very apt to do on the bare, smooth surface of the 
metal, causing a great deal of trouble and loss of time. 

GRINDING THE CARDS. 

In setting the emery rollers to grind the cards, do not set 
them to bear too hard or too heavy on the wire, for this will 
heat, soften, or break the wire, if it is not very good and 
tough. The emery rollers should be seven or eight inches in 
diameter, and always two or three inches wider than the card- 
cylinders, so that they may traverse an inch each way on the 
cylinder, and not leave any of the wire bare. Traversing is 
effected by means of a waving pulley, about 5 J inches in dia- 
meter ; the outer rim or edge of the pulley runs in a slot 
attached to the stand of the roller : or the traversing is pro- 
duced by a crooked strap, which, fitting between the rims of 
the pulley, will move the emery roller longitudinally and 
around at the same time. The traverse motion may be also 
produced by a waving pulley at the emery roller. The 
emery roller must be kept on the cylinders until they are 
ground perfectly true, and until the greater portion of the 



76 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

teeth are ground to a point. The perfect rotundity of the 
cylinder may be ascertained by the sound it produces on the 
emery roller as it runs : the sight may also be of service in 
this respect, either when the cylinder is in motion, or by stop* 
ping it, and giving it a careful examination. Vv T hen the sur- 
face of a card-cylinder has been sufficiently ground, it will 
have a blackish appearance, while those parts that are not 
ground enough will appear more or less clear and bright. 
As long as a considerable quantity of white teeth appear, the 
grinding must be continued. One day will be sufficient tc 
grind up a new card, if the emery is in tolerably good order. 



HAND-EMERIES. 

"When the cylinder has been ground perfectly true, and 
nearly all the bright teeth have disappeared, the cards are 
finished off by reducing the teeth to a smooth point, which is 
done by a wooden hand-emery for the doffer, and a canvas 
emery for the main cylinder. The emery for the doffer should 
be made of clean, well-seasoned pine wood, one inch thick, 
three inches wide, and two or three inches longer than the 
width of the card-cylinder. For twenty-eight inch cards, the 
emery should be thirty or thirty-one inches long, and for 
thirty inch cards, thirty-two or thirty-three inches long, so 
that, in traversing the emery-board backwards and forwards 
two or three inches, the wire will be always covered, and no 
part of it left bare at the end of the cylinders ; for, if such 
be the case, the parts left bare will be higher than those on 
which the emery was constantly operating. In grinding with 
the hamhemery, it must be moved perfectly straight and pa- 
rallel, and not pressed too heavily on the cylinder, as this 
makes the fillet slack at the right-hand side, and proportion- 



CARDS AND CARDING. 7? 

ally light on the left-hand side of the doffer. When these 
hand-emeries are over twenty-six inches in length, they should 
have a strip of wood attached to the centre of the upper side. 
This strip or back-bone should be full an inch wide, and 2 \ or 
2 \ inches deep in the middle, sloping off to each end, and be 
fastened on by stout screws. This prevents them from warp- 
ing. If they become warped or crooked, it has the effect of 
grinding off the card-wire, and destroying the straight, level 
surface, which must be guarded against by every possible 
means. Good, well-made canvas emeries are undoubtedly 
the best for finishing or grinding the main cylinder on ordi- 
nary occasions; they are made by attaching a piece of stout,, 
even canvas, twelve inches wide, and seventeen or eighteen 
inches long, to an iron or wooden frame, one end of which 
must be made to move with slats, so as to make the canvas 
slack enough to form a curve like a saddle when applied to 
the cylinder. On this account it is commonly called saddle- 
grinder. It is advisable not to make it so slack as to permit 
the ends where the canvas is fastened to come in contact with 
the teeth. Those ends, if attached to a fiat board, should rise 
about 2 J inches, which will allow the canvas 17 or 18 inches 
to form a sufficient curve without touching the back. There 
must be a handle on the back of the board to hold it by : two 
handles are better than one, if reaching from end to end, as 
the person grinding would then have to use both hands, and 
could, of course, hold it steadier. If the canvas is on an 
iron frame, this frame should be made in two parts, with a 
curved back, and be connected on the back by a slide and two 
screws. 

7* 



78 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 



USING THE HAND-EMERF. 



In using the hand-emery, the operator must be careful not 
to press it upon the wire, but to let it bear its own weight. 
While moving it backwards and forwards, or rather from side 
to side, he should also take heed that the grinder dwells a 
little longer at the ends of the sheets, or the sides of the 
cards, than in the middle : the reason for this is very obvious, 
the emery passing over the middle twice for the once that it 
does over either end ; and, without resting a short time at 
each side, the cylinder would be ground hollow, consequently, 
on starting the card, it would be found to make bad work. 
Many cards are injured by learners, or by persons unac- 
quainted with the proper manner of holding or using canvas 
emeries. Canvas emeries cannot be made the full width of the 
cylinder — at least they are not made so — it would make them 
quite too heavy, and they would do more to injure than to 
benefit the wires of the cards. 



GROUND HOLLOW. 

If, through ignorance or inattention, it should happen that 
either of the cylinders or likerins is ground hollow in the 
middle, if the surface is in any way injured, or if the cylinder 
'\& losing its rotundity, it will be impossible, while in this con- 
dition, for a card to make good work. One card working 
badly will spoil the work of twenty cards working in a proper 
manner, if mixed with it at the drawing-frame. When any 
of these difficulties occur, the only remedy is to put on the 
emery roller again, and reduce ail the prominent places, 
making the cylinder as even, true, and round, as it was 
originally. 



CARDS AND CARDING. 



STRAIGHT EDGES. 



In every carding-room, there should be at least one pair 
of hard, well-seasoned, wooden straight-edges — chrrry will 
answer very well — of the full width of the cylinder, sr as long 
as the emery roller. These straight-edges should he about 
three inches broad, and nearly three-fourths of an inch thick. 
They are used for the purpose of trying the cards, and the 
manager or carder should frequently apply them to the card- 
cylinders, likerins, hand-emeries, and rollers. In every large- 
• sized carding-room, there should be a good tape measuring 
line, fifty or seventy-five feet in length, having the feet and 
inches correctly marked thereon j also, an accurate spirit-level, 
two feet long by three inches in width, having both horizontal 
and perpendicular spirit-glasses inserted in it. 



HOW TO EXAMINE A CARD. 

Should any of the cards work so badly, after being set care- 
fully, as to create a suspicion of their not being exactly true, 
all the cylinders of the card should be stripped and brushed 
out. The straight-edge should then be applied on the surface 
of the teeth, holding it perfectly parallel, and looking under it 
against the light. Ey this means, we may ascertain whether 
the surface is perfectly straight. It will then be an easy 
matter to discover whether any of the cylinders are not per- 
fectly round, by examining them while running without any 
cotton on them. If they are so much out of the proper form 
as to be the occasion of injury to the work, and it is apparent 
that a great deal of grinding will be requisite to make them 
true, the sheets should be taken off, and the cylinders turned 
up and re-covered. The same must be done with the doffers 



80 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

under similar circumstances. If the cylinders do not require 
to be divested of their covering, put on an emery roller for a 
period of three or four hours, or as long as may be required 
to produce the desired effect. At the same time, it will be 
necessary to try all the emeries by the straight-edge; for, if 
they are not straight, it cannot be expected that the cards can 
be made true by their use. 

For spinning yarn from No. 15 to 30, the cards should 
be ground every two weeks ; for fine numbers they must be 
ground once or twice a week; but no cards should run longer 
than two weeks without being ground, when either middling 
or coarse numbers of 3 T arn are being spun. The workers, 
strippers, and top cards may be ground every four weeks, or 
once while the card-cylinders are ground twice. The cylin- 
ders should be well carded out with an open, thin-set hand- 
card, applied to the cylinders when they are running in the 
same manner as when being ground ; the main cylinder and 
likerin revolve in a contrary direction to what they take when 
carding, but the doffer runs in its usual direction, only much 
faster. After being carded out, they should be well brushed 
with a good, thick-set, stiff-bristled brush, which may be again 
used after the grinding is finished, in cleaning out the emery 
dust, and taking out any chance particles of emery that may 
adhere to the sheets. It is much better to grind cards often, 
than to grind them long at one time, as the teeth are subject 
to become clogged with particles of waste and seeds, and to 
become dull and set back, if they are run too long. This 
is especially the case where there are screens under the cylin- 
ders and likerins. The top cards should be carefully exam- 
ined when they are ground, and all the teeth which may be 
depressed should be set up by a sharp, thin, tapering, and 
pointed steel tool, made for the purpose. All dents, bruises, 



CARDS AND CARDING. 81 

&c, of the teeth, should be remedied as much as possible 
every time they are ground. If no attention be paid to this 
matter, the cards will fall by degrees into a very bad state, 
and will not last as long as they would under a proper system 
of management. 

The proper and timely grinding of cards calls for the most 
careful attention on the part of the manager and head carder. 
The proper performance of this process is so essentially ne- 
cessary to the production of good work, that we may safely 
assume that there is more cotton and yarn spoiled by the im- 
proper grinding of the cards, running them too long without 
grinding, or unskilful setting, than from all other causes com- 
bined. Some master cotton-spinners, apprehensive lest the 
teeth of the cards should be cut down, have forbidden their 
carders to grind their cards oftener than once in four weeks, 
even when those cards were running at a quick speed, doing 
heavy carding, and having screens under the cylinders and 
likerins, at the distance of only three-eighths of an inch from 
the teeth. It would be equally as correct to forbid a carpenter 
to file his saw, or whet his plane-irons, chisels, or gouges, lest 
he should wear them out. 



SETTING CARDS. 

In setting cards to work Georgia, Tennessee, or Alabama 
cotton, or any of the common short staple cottons in general 
use, for low and middling numbers of yarn, set the fluted 
rollers so that they will run without touching the likerins, 
workers, strippers, or doffers, as close as possible to the main 
cylinder without coming in contact with it. Set the strippers 
sufficiently near to the workers to take the cotton off them. 
When setting the top cards, raise the front part of them, 01 



82 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

the side next to the feeding-rollers, a little higher than the 
back part, sufficient to cause the back teeth to catch the dirt 
as well as the front ones. If they do not catch alike ovei 
the whole surface of the sheet, they are not properly set. 
Top cards, when kept in good order, properly set, and regu- 
larly stripped, are very useful auxiliaries in carding. Both 
the eye and ear may be used in setting cards ; it sometimes 
occurring, that in particular situations, the ear may detect an 
imperfection, where the eye cannot be used advantageously, 
if at all. A quick eye and a sharp ear are both of great use 
to carders. 

SETTING THE COMB-PLATE. 

When setting the comb-plate to clear the cotton from the 
doffer, turn the sweep of the crank-axle so that it will stand 
half up and half down, then set the comb-plate so that the 
teeth, which must be inclined in towards the doffer, will stand 
parallel with the centre or axle of the doffer, so . that in 
working the comb-teeth, it will rise above the centre of the 
doffer and sink below it. The sweep of the crank should be 
about three-fourths of an inch, which will give a stroke of 
one and one-half inches up and down. The crank should 
make one revolution for every inch of circumference turned 
by the doffer. 

STRIPPING OF CARDS. 

The main cylinder should be well stripped every two, or at 
least every three hours. The doffer should be stripped twice 
each day, at noon, and near the stopping time in the evening ; 
the likerin once or twice each day. The top cards should be 
stripped in regular rotation, without causing any interruption, 
and not more than one-half of the same card at one time. 



CARDS AND CARDING. 83 

For this purpose, a stout boy should be in attendance on each 
sixteen or eighteen cards. Considerable importance should 
be attached to the stripping of the top cards j it is more re- 
quisite for fine yarn than for coarse, but is undoubtedly bene- 
ficial to all numbers of yarn, and makes the cards work 
better. The persons stripping the top cards should work by 
the piece, and be paid at the rate of so much per pound ; 
their toppings should be weighed every morning and entered 
in a book kept for that purpose by the carder. This system 
of operations will save the manager and carder a great deal 
of trouble, and is also the means of improving the work, 
having a tendency to promote the constant and regular topping 
of' the cards by those employed for that purpose. 



CARDS SHOULD NOT RUN BARE. 

The cards should not be suffered to run bare when a lap- 
roller is run out; it is so much time lost, and renders the card 
liable to accidents and injuries, by waste catching about the 
calender rollers and cranks. The piecings of the rollers 
should be neatly joined at the cards, and not overlapped or 
doubled too much, as they will choke the feed-rollers and 
likerin. The flyings should be taken from under the cylinder 
once or twice each day, according to the speed of the cards, 
and the nature of the cotton giving it a greater or less ten- 
dency to the production of flyings. 



SCREENS. 

Where those useful fixtures, screens, are attached to the 
cards, cleaning twice each week will suffice, on Wednesday 
evenings, and at noon on Saturdays. If well fitted up, the 



84 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

screens should go round under the likerin, from the fluted 
rollers, and extend from thence under the main cylinder, and 
around this cylinder, and between it and the doffer, It can 
be safely taken thus far without coming in contact with the 
doffer ; here it should be doubled over, and not present a raw 
edge between the two cylinders. The end, when neatly 
doubled over, should descend at least five or six inches. The 
screen must be a full inch distant from the doffer at every 
point; for, if any waste or cotton catches on it, sticks, and 
rubs against the doffer, it makes a very ugly appearance in 
the stuff coming off the doffer. 



LENGTH OP SCREEN. 

Screens are generally made of zinc, all in one piece, and as 
wide as the framing of the card. About eighteen inches in 
length of the space under the cylinder, and four inches under 
the likerin, the full width must be punched regularly with 
half-inch holes, at the distance of about half an inch apart, 
to allow the sand and dirt to fall through. The screen should 
be placed at the distance of about three-sixteenths of an inch 
from the card-teeth of the likerin and cylinder, very accu- 
rately put up to fit the circumference of the circles, and so 
firmly fixed that it will not be liable to be easily moved when 
anything is being done about the cards. The screen should 
be connected altogether with the frame-work of the card, and 
not be in any manner attached to the floor. 



NUMBER OF HOLES. 

For thirty inch cards the screen will require to be about 
thirty-six inches wide, and should contain forty holes in this 



CARDS AND CARDING. 85 

width; and in the eighteen inches under the centre, in the 
direction from the likerin to the doner, there should be at 
least twenty holes in the width : this will make 800 holes 
under the main cylinder. Perhaps one foot would be enough 
in this last direction. If we put twelve holes in this one foot 
by three feet, it will make 480 holes; 200 holes are sufficient 
under the centre of the likerin. 



USE OF SCREENS. 

There is a diversity of opinion among good cotton-spinners 
and carders, as to the utility of screens. Experience shows 
that they have a tendency to make the cards dull in a short 
time, and to cause seeds and large motes to stick in the teeth, 
if the cotton is dirty. Notwithstanding this, screens effect a 
great saving of cotton and labour. A card, thirty inches 
wide, turning off about sixty-two pounds of cotton per day, 
will, without a screen, produce flyings amounting to not less 
than twelve pounds per week, and, if an inferior kind of 
cotton be used, it will amount to nearly eighteen pounds. At. 
any rate, if we consider the cotton to be fair, it will amount 
to twelve pounds. It is true that a considerable portion of 
this cotton would be fit to mix into filling, coarse yarn, &c. ; 
but then what a waste of time and labour in picking, sorting, 
and mixing, what dirt and confusion is occasioned in the card- 
room, taking out these flyings twice every day from under all 
the "cards, in addition to other inconveniences. But when 
screens are used, and well fixed, a card will not make more 
than three pounds of flyings per week, instead of twelve 
pounds, which, in twenty-eight cards, amounts to 336 pounds 
of cotton. By the screen system, the loss would be eighty- 
four pounds. There are thus 252 pounds of good cotton saved 

. ' 8 



86 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

per week, ou twenty-eight cards. These are positive practical 
facts. The last waste may be packed into a bag without any 
further trouble, and will be worth from two to three cents per 
pound. The amount of 252 pounds per week in favour of 
the screens will amount to 13,104 pounds per annum, which, 
at 12 J cents per pound, would be worth the sum of $1633. 
So much in favour of the screens, which should be a conclu- 
sive recommendation of them. 



ADVANTAGES OF SCREENS. 

Some persons object to the screens, and say that they make 
the yarn dirty and weak. But if the cylinders and top cards 
are kept properly stripped and ground, the screens will work 
well. The advantage of the screens is, that the greater part 
of the fibres, which would, otherwise, fly off the cylinders and 
lodge under the cards, are wrought up into yarn. This part 
of the cotton is quite as long and strong in the staple as the 
best of the stuff, and the shorter parts pass in by such a re- 
gular and imperceptible process, that the yarn is not weakened 
or injured by it. In the cards previously alluded to, the pul- 
leys and crank-straps run inside of the frame and covers, and 
cause considerable quantities of cotton and waste to be thrown 
on the floor; this can be remedied by putting the straps on 
the outside. 

When the screens do not give satisfaction, it is owing to 
their improper construction. The expense of fitting them up 
is very trifling, when compared with the benefits to be derived 
from them. Everything which effects a saving of labour and 
material, should be brought into use in these days of foreign 
competition and rivalry, if it proves to be worthy of a trial. 



CARDS AND CARDING. 87 



TO CONNECT CARDS BY RAILROAD. 

Railroads, as they are called, are in front of the cards; by 
these the slivers from six or twelve cards are all run along in 
a trough on a strap, and pass in the mean time through a 
series of rollers, placed together in the same manner as in a 
drawing-head. This improvement saves the labour of changing 
cans, is a saving of them, and also a saving of the floor at the 
same time. The whole of those ten or twelve card-slivers 
pass into one can, which is generally convenient to the drawing- 
heads. These railroads have also a tendency to improve the 
work, so far as doubling together a number of ends is con- 
cerned, and thereby partly remedying any defects in the feed- 
ing, or irregularity of any single card. The fixtures and ma- 
chinery of this improvement are of a complicated nature, and 
consequently liable to become deranged in some of its nume- 
rous parts, and prove troublesome. This may and does form 
a serious drawback to the advantages they possess. 

As the principal use of these railroads is, to collect all the 
stuff produced by a number of cards into one can, they are 
certainly capable of being very much simplified. They are 
generally so constructed, that the stuff comes through the 
calender-rollers of the railroad at one end, and is of the same 
thickness when two or three of the cards are stopped, as if 
they were all in motion. To produce this desirable and very 
necessary effect, such a quantity of gearing, levers, cones, and 
clock-work machinery is required, as renders the whole system 
liable to get out of order. Any derangement of course mate- 
rially affects the regularity of the stuff. When anything 
happens to any of the cards of the system, it causes a stop- 
page for the time being of all the cards attached to it, thereby 
stopping one-half or more of the machinery in a large room. 



88 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

It is a wrong principle to have machinery of such a flimsy 
nature dependent on the watchfulness of a thoughtless, giddy 
boy or girl. If a piece of waste catches around a journal on 
two of the cards in such a system, it will stop six or twelve 
cards, with all the other machinery dependent on them, for a 
considerable length of time. 

These railroads have now, however, arrived at such perfec- 
tion, that nothing is wanting to bring them into general use, 
but care and attention on the part of the head carder. If he 
keeps the cards in good order, no difficulty will ever occur in 
the operations of the railroad. The improvement in the 
drawing-head which .Jenks has patented, is perfectly secure. 
It admits of the stoppage of one, two or three cards, without 
disturbing the running cards, or the thickness of the lamina?-. 
As twelve cards are never usually connected in one system, 
nine may be set down as the highest number which should 
ever be so connected by railroad. 



FACING CARDS. 

The great improvements in card-grinding, introduced within 
the last twenty-five years, have abolished the destructive pro- 
cess of facing new cards, or old ones either ; that is, by grind- 
ing them for several days against the teeth with a fast grinder. 
This has ceased to be a practice, and has been superseded by 
skill and practical knowledge. Many thousands of setts of 
good card covering have formerly been spoiled or greatly in- 
jured by this erroneous system of grinding, which was once 
deemed necessary to level the teeth, and bring them to an 
even surface. Formerly, before machinery was brought to 
such perfection as to cut and stick card-teeth in the leather, 
the points or surfaces of the teeth were not of such a uniform 



CARDS AND CARDING. 89 

regularity as they now are. This ruinous plan of cutting 
down the wire to one-fourth of its original length, may break 
out one-fourth or one-third of them close to the leather, and 
cause injury to the remainder by softening the wire. In 
those times, cards actually underwent more wear and tear in 
one grinding, than three years' fair work would have done, 
and now does. 

Cards should be faced in the following manner. When a 
new card is to be faced up, apply a light hand-emery gently 
to the teeth, against their set, for about one or two minutes 
on each cylinder ; this is done for the express purpose of set- 
ting all the teeth up before the roller is put on. The carder 
should attend to this personally, or some careful, practised 
individual on whom he can depend. No ignorant, careless 
person should be entrusted with the grinding of cards, unless 
it is intended to have them spoiled, and the work spoiled also. 



CLOTHING CARDS DIRECTION OF THE WIRE. 

When clothing cards with workers and strippers, put the 
fillet on the likerin from left to right ; on the workers from 
right to left; on the strippers from left to right. The teeth 
of the likerin and strippers stand in a different direction from 
those of the main cylinder, and also run contrary. Those on 
the workers stand the same way as on the main cylinder, but 
run in a contrary direction. The fillet on the doffer is put on 
from left to right, and the teeth stand the same way as on the 
main cylinder, but it runs in a contrary direction. The teeth 
on the top cards stand in a different direction to those on the 
main cylinder. 
8* 



90 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

KIND OF WIRE USED IN CARDS. 

For filletting on the likerins, 2 inches wide, use No. 30 
wire. 

For filletting on the workers and strippers ; 1 J inches wide, 
use No. 30 or 31. 

For filletting on doffers, 2 inches wide, use No. 34 or 35. 

For main cylinder, length to suit, 4 inches wide, use No. 
33 or 34. 

For sheets of top card, length to suit, If or 2 inches wide, 
use No. 31 or 32. 

REGULATIONS IN THE CARDING-ROOM. 

The cards, and everything about them, should be kept in 
nice, clean order, as well as all the machinery connected with 
them. All cotton and waste must be kept off the floor and 
out of the windows. The cards must be regularly and care- 
fully oiled; the main cylinder, cranks, likerins, and strippers, 
twice each day j or, the likerins and strippers may be picked 
off and oiled each time the main cylinder is stripped, which 
is every two or three hours : all the other journals, which run 
at a slower speed than those mentioned, must be oiled every 
morning. The flyings must be taken out twice every day ; 
but if there are screens to the cards, twice each week will be 
sufficient, namely, every Wednesday and Saturday. All the 
aards should be well brushed off every one or two hours, as 
ffell as the side-frames, top-covers, and fronts. Waste must 
not be allowed to accumulate on the comb-plate and the ends 
of the doffers, on both of which places it is liable to catch. 
The surface of the covers of the top cards, worker, and likerin, 
should be rubbed off twice each day with hard waste ; this 



CARDS AND CARDING. 91 

may be done near dinner-time, and near the stopping-time in 
the evening. Do not allow the boys, or any other person, to 
cut, bruise, or disfigure the machinery, walls, window-sills, or 
seats, in any manner whatever. Nothing has a worse appear- 
ance, independent of the damage occasioned by it ; it indicates 
a careless indifference on the part of the superintendent of 
the room, and is the fault of the manager. 

It may be proper to repeat, that if the cards are badly set 
or ground, or suffered to run too long without grinding, they 
will spoil the roving, and consequently the yarn, by rendering 
it nappy, rough, and weak. The subsequent operation of 
drawing and, doubling cannot correct this fault ; no machine. 
can make good marketable yarn from such carding. These 
things cannot be too strongly impressed on the minds of the 
carder and manager, as they are subjects of the utmost im- 
portance to those who wish to make good yarn. 



SPEED OP PARTS OP THE CARD. 

It was the impression at one time, that the likerins would 
make the best work when driven at a rapid speed ; this was 
discovered to be a mistake. A card is found to work to the 
best advantage, when the relative speed of the main cylinder 
and likerin is so calculated, that the main cylinder will dis- 
play double the amount of surface that the likerin will dis- 
play in the same time. On reference to the sizes of the dif- 
ferent parts of the cards, we find that the main cylinder dis- 
plays about 1355 feet of surface per minute, and the likerin 
680 feet; the main cylinder displaying double the surface of 
the likerin in a given time. 

The yield of well- constructed cards is about three pounds 
in ten hours for every inch in width ; so that a card thirty 



92 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

inches wide will furnish ninety pounds of sliver in ten hours, 
This is the calculation for coarse numbers, from No. 6 to 20 ; 
the cards must be entirely covered by workers and strippers, 
and one carding will be sufficient. For finer numbers a double 
carding will be required, and the cards must consist partly of 
workers and partly of flats. These cards do less work, and 
make but one and three-fourth pounds of sliver in ten hours, 
for each inch of their width ; so that a thirty inch card will 
woduce fifty-two and a half pounds in one day. 



COVERING EMERY ROLLERS AND EMERIES. 
KIND OF EMERY. 

The emery used for grinding cards, is of various sizes and 
qualities, and may be had of the principal druggists. Num- 
bers 3 and 4 are good sizes, and are preferable to the finer 
kinds. It must be perfectly free from rotten or pounded 
stone, and all ingredients not belonging to it. Emery may 
be tested by laying some of it on a flat piece of iron, and at- 
tempting to bruise it with a flat-faced hammer; if it is good 
and hard, it will resist the hammer ; if it is soft, or mixed 
with any improper matter, such as broken porter-bottles, rotten 
rock, or pounded stone, it will yield easily to the hammer, 
and must consequently be rejected. Coarse emery cuts and 
grinds quicker than fine emery, and also sinks in among the 
points' of the teeth, cleans them, and cuts off any roughness, 
barbs, or hooks that may be on them, and prevents them 
from rubbing on each other. If the emery is too coarse, it 
causes rings or grooves and ridges around the cylinders. 



CARDS AND CARDING. 93 

CLEANING EMERY. 

Emery, when brought from the druggists', is generally 
found to contain more or less dirt, such as chips, dust, &c, 
which prevent the glue from holding the emery, as it will 
become filled up with the dust. To prevent this, some carders 
wash the emery in warm water, when the light dust and chips 
will rise to the surface, and may be washed off. After this, 
the emery may be spread on a cloth, and dried in the sun, by 
a stove, in the steam-engine room, or in any other dry place. 
This is an excellent plan, as by it the emery may be thoroughly 
cleaned. 

Another plan is, to have a box made of wood, about four 
inches deep, its 'length and width to correspond with the size 
of a sheet of tin, which is pierced full of holes, sufficiently 
large to allow the grains of emery to pass through them ; this 
tin sieve must be nailed on the box frame. The emery must 
be taken to a door, window, or some other place where the 
advantages of a good breeze can be obtained ) sift the emery 
through this sieve, holding it up at a distance of three or 
four feet from the ground, exposing the sifted emery to the 
breeze, and letting it fall on a piece of cloth spread on the 
ground, large enough to receive all the emery as it falls. It 
may be necessary to repeat this process in order to clean the 
emery properly from dust and chips. It is advisable, if there 
is a large quantity on hand, to clean it all at one time, cover 
it up snugly in a keg or box, and put it away carefully, so 
that it may be always ready for use when wanted. 

MAKING EMERY ROLLERS. 

Have the rollers turned perfectly true and straight, and two 
or three pots full of good glue, ready melted. This glue 



94 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

must be of a medium consistency ; if it is too thin it will not 
hold the emery, and if too thick, it will not adhere to, or 
spread evenly on the rollers. It will require one person to 
turn the rollers or the cylinders slowly, while two others apply 
the glue by means of large paint or sash brushes ; or, one of 
them might use a half-worn white-wash brush, while the other 
passed over after him, and finished them off with the sash 
brush. The glue-kettles should be placed quite convenient to 
the rollers. The glue must be brushed around the rollers as 
soon as possible, particular care being taken not to miss any 
part, especially the ends, as it is there they first begin to give 
way. As soon as the roller is covered with glue, two persons 
must strew on the emery, letting it fall from a height of two 
feet, to make it stick, while a third turns the roller. The 
emery must be laid around the ends of the rollers by hand, 
in order to make it adhere to those places. As the roller is 
turned slowly around, the loose emery will fall off, and a suf- 
ficient coat will adhere to it. 

These rollers should be allowed to dry during the night, 
and the next day they should receive a second coat, exactly 
in the same manner as the first, with the exception that the 
glue may be somewhat thinner. They should again be left 
to dry during the night, and the next day all the glue and 
waste emery adhering to the ends should be scraped off. The 
rollers should then be tried by a correct straight-edge, the 
emery rubbed off the high places, and the whole made as 
level and true as possible. Then, a wash, composed of about 
2 J ounces of glue and 1 pint of water, may be applied to all 
the rollers, canvas, and hand-emeries, with one of the sash 
Drushes. This is a very necessary process, as it prevents the 
emery from flying off into the cans, and thereby spoiling the 
top rollers when grinding ; this wash unites all the coats firmly 



CARDS AND CARDING. 95 

together, and does not prevent the emery from cutting equally 
as fast; this operation should never be dispensed with, as it 
is of great practical utility. When this wash is applied to 
the rollers or emery cylinders, some person should keep them 
constantly revolving, to prevent the wash from running to 
the lowest side, and dripping off. This would spoil them ; 
therefore, they must be kept in motion for three or four hours, 
or until the glue hardens to such an extent as to remove any 
apprehensions of its running. It will be necessary, when cov- 
ering the rollers with emery, to have a piece of stout muslin 
or canvas tacked around the frame, under the roller or cylin- 
der, to receive the emery which does not adhere, and prevent 
it from encumbering the floor. When covering the canvas 
for emeries, it mi^st be tacked to a smooth, level board, on 
which it must remain until it has received both coats, as well 
as the finishing wash. 



MAKING HAND-EMERIES. 

In putting the emery on the canvas and wooden hand-eme- 
ries, it is advisable to strew it on pretty thickly, level it off 
by drawing a straight-edge lightly over it, and then pass a 
straight wooden or iron roller over it two or three times. 
After this has been done, lift them up and give the ends a 
gentle tap on the floor, which has been previously covered 
with a cloth or paper, and collect all the loose particles of 
emery. The hand-emeries should receive two coats, and pre- 
viously to their undergoing the washing process, they must 
be tried by a correct straight-edge, to ascertain whether they 
are perfectly true, as it is of the utmost consequence in grind- 



96 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

ing cards, that they should be so. If they are not exactly 
true, they may be made so by rubbing the high parts over 
with another emery. Two or three small hand-emeries, nine 
or ten inches long, three inches wide, and a full inch thick, 
are a very necessary article in every carding-room : they are 
covered on both sides with a coat of emery and a wash, and 
will be found very serviceable in setting up the teeth which 
may be bruised or dented in any part of the cards, by acci- 
dent or negligence, and also for levelling the surfaces of the 
other emeries. 

After the application of the wash to the canvas, and other 
emeries, they should be carefully put away in a level position, 
with the side on which the emery has been spread, uppermost, 
so that the surface may dry evenly. 

There are many different modes of covering rollers and 
hand-emeries, which it is unnecessary to describe here, as the 
methods alluded to are equal, if not superior, to any other 
plan of making them. It was formerly a prevalent opinion 
amongst carders, that an emery roller or cylinder could not 
be so covered as to make a good job, without the application 
of an iron friction-roller. When this was the practice, as 
soon as the emery was put on the roller, it was kept turning 
at a sinart speed for ten or fifteen minutes, with the friction- 
roller pressed tightly against it. 



PRESSING EMERIES WITH ROLLERS. 

Pressing-rollers answer very well to roll over hand or can- 
vas emeries, where there is a layer of emery a half or three- 
fourths of an inch thick ; but the rollers are much better 



CARDS AND CARDING. • t*7 

without tlieir action. Rollers are not only made more true 
and round without the aid of the pressing-roller, but they are 
left rougher and sharper ; the projecting grains then sink be- 
tween the points of the card-teeth, make them clean and 
smooth, and produce well-shaped points, free from hooks ; ob- 
jects which are very desirable. 



TO FIND THE DRAUGHT OF A CARD. 
THE DIMENSIONS OF THE PARTS OP A CARD. 

Diameter of doffer, including wire, (driver,) .... 21 inches. 

Bevel on doffer-axle, (driven,) 42 teeth. 

Driving side-shaft by bevel of, (driver,) 42 " 

Pinion on lower end of side-shaft, (driven,) .... 21 " 

Driving fluted rollers by bevel of, (driven,) 67 " 

Diameter of fluted rollers, (driver,) 1 1 in. 

RULE. 

Multiply the dimensions of the drivers together, and that 
product by the diameter of the fluted rollers. Then multiply 
the dimensions of the driven wheels together, and that pro- 
duct by the diameter of the doffer. Divide the greater num- 
oer by the lesser, and the quotient will be the answer, giving 
the draught of the card between the doffer and the feeding- 
rollers. 

When the cards have drawing-heads attached to them, find 
the draught of this head, and multiply the quotient j ust found 
by the sum of this draught ; the product will be the total 
draught of the card. 



98 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

EXAMPLE. 

Drivers Driven. 

42 67 

21 42 

42 134 

84 268 



882 2814 

J>= j \^;Vet?ed^ta d 4_84= 21 in. diam. of doffer. 

4410 11256 _i 

22512 84 reduced to £ inches. 



4410)236376(53.60=draught of card be- 
22050 tweenf.rol.&dof. 



15876 
13230 



26460 
26460 



DRAUGHT OF A DRAWING-HEAD. 

There are drawing-heads to these cards ; of the following 
dimensions : — 

In. Teeth. 

Diameter of front roller, (driven,) li . . 

Diameter of back roller, (driver,) 1 

Pinion on front roller, (driver,) . . 20 

Pinion on back roller, (driven,) . . 40 

Intermediate wheel . . 30 

There are only two rollers in the card-head ; it receives its 
motion from a small pulley on the crank-shaft, which is but 



CARDS AND CARDING. 99 

a poor contrivance, as the straps are liable to slip when the 
card is started. Where there are a great number of cards in 
a room, this causes a great deal of trouble, and makes too 
much waste, besides a loss of time. It would be much better 
if these heads received their motion from the doffer Dj 
gearing. 

TO FIND THE DRAUGHT OP THE DRAWING-HEAD. 

EXAMPLE. 
Driver pinion on front roller. Driven pinion on back roller. 

20 teeth. 40 

8=diam. back roller. 9 = l£ in. diam. front roller 

160=1 inch=f 160)360(2 £, or 2.25, draught of 
320 drawing-head at cards. 

Draught of card= 53.60 40) //„( J 
Do. ofd. head = 2.25 



26800 
10720 
10720 



120.60,00=total draught of card, 120.60 



o 



That is, one foot of a lap, running up at the feeding-rollers, 
comes out in front of the calender rollers a trifle over 120 J 
feet in length. There are cards with a draught of nearly 
200 to 1. 

The draught between the feed-rollers and 79 

cards, in this instance, was 1 into 79, and 2 J 

the draught of the drawing-head was 1 into -. r « 

2f. Total draught, 197 J. oqi 

This is carding for fine yarn, No. 150. 

197* 



100 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 



TO FIND THE LENGTH OE A FILLET. 

To find the length of a fillet, two inches in width, (it should 
never be narrower than this, either for doffer or likerins,) to 
cover a doffer 21 inches in diameter, and 30 inches in width, 
use the following rule. The diameter bears to the circum- 
ference about the same (or near enough for our purpose,) pro- 
portion as 7 does to 22. Multiply the number of inches in 
the circumference of the doffer by the amount of inches in 
its width, and divide the product by 2 ; the quotient will be 
the length in inches, which, divided by 12, will give the cor- 
rect length in feet ; the remainder, if any, will be inches 

EXAMPLE. 

To find the circumference, if 

Diam. Cir. 

7 : 22 : : 21 : to circum. of doffer. 
21 

22 
44 



7)462 

Circumference of doffer=66 inches. 
Width of doffer= 30 " 

Width of fillet=2)1980 

Inches in a foot= 12)990 

82.6 = len. of fillet, 82 f. 6 in. 

To be on the safe side, get the fillet long enough ; for, 
sometimes they fall short, which occasions a great deal of 



CARDS AND CARDING. 101 

trouble. For iron doffers, particularly, it is essentially neces- 
sary that the fillets should be long enough to reach from the 
plug-holes on one side to those on the opposite side. All 
cylinders are about one inch wider than the sheets are made. 
In order to be certain, let the calculation be made at 31 
inches instead of 30 ; for it is much better to have some to 
spare than to have the fillet too short. The length of the 
fillet will then be 

Circumference of doffer=66 inches. 
Widthofdoffer=31 

66 
198 



2)2046 
12)1023 



85.3=85 feet, 
Or, 84 feet would be amply sufficient. 



SIZE OF FILLETS. 

Fillets for likerins should be as wide as those of the doffers. 
when the diameter of the likerin is eight inches or more. If 
the diameter is less than this, a fillet two inches wide would 
assume too much of a spiral form when lapping on the likerin, 
and would present the sides of the teeth to the cotton, in- 
stead of the fronts and points. This is the reason why nar- 
row fillets are put on workers and strippers. Narrow fillets 
are too weak for likerins, which have so much more labour to 
perform in pulling the raw cotton from between the feeding- 
9* 



T02 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

rollers. By the straining which it receives, and by grinding 
it, the fillet is often drawn to such a degree of tensity as to 
break suddenly when the card is performing only its regular 
work, thereby damaging the other cylinders, or their clothing, 
to the amount of forty or fifty dollars, besides the vexation 
and loss of time which such an accident occasions. Sad de- 
vastation may be occasioned about a card by the fillet on a 
doffer or likerin giving way when the card is at work. If 
the fillet should catch on the main cylinder, when it is revolv- 
ing at its greatest speed, which is nearly 140 times per mi- 
nute, it will, in an incredibly short space of time, tear every- 
thing to pieces, and make the workers, strippers, and top 
cards fly about in every direction ; and, before it will be pos- 
sible to stop the card, great damage will be caused. The 
breaking of a fillet may be said to be one of the miseries of 
cotton-spinning; the only possible remedies for which are, 
the use of strong fillets, and the exercise of the utmost care 
on the part of those who are employed to superintend the 
operations of this portion of the machinery. 

Fillets on likerins of the narrow kind, say 1|- inches wide, 
may be strengthened by driving two or three rows of small 
2 J or 3 ounce tacks, in equi-distant rows, around the circum- 
ference, and the full width of the likerin. If this is neatly 
and carefully done, it will be of considerable use in prevent- 
ing it from breaking, and will also keep xt from running 
slack at the right-hand side when grinding. 



CARDS AND CARDING. 103 



TO FIND THE LENGTH OF THE FILLET FOR A LIKERIN. 

When the diameter of the likerin is 11 inches, and its 
width is 31 inches. 

EXAMPLES. 

7 : 22 : : 11 : 34| inches =circuni. of likerin. 
31 " = width of likerin. 

34 
102 
15* 



2)1069* 

12)534f- 



44.6 
Ans. 44 feet 6 inches of 2 inch fillet. 

The length of a 1 J inch fillet for the same likerin, will he, 

Inches. Feet. Inches. 

2 : 44* : : 1* : Ans. 
2 4 2 



4 3)178 3 

59.3 
Ans. 59 feet 3 inches of 1* inch fillet. 

TO FIND THE LENGTH OF THE FILLET FOR A WORKER. 

When the worker is 6 inches in diameter, and 31 inches 
wide, to find the length of 1 J inch fillet which will be re- 
quired to cover it. 



104 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER, 



EXAMPLE. 








31 inches. 

19 " circum, 

279 
31 


.of 


worker, 


nearly. 


589 

2 halves. 

3)1178 








12)392f inches. 








32.8 









Ans. 32 feet 8 inches, length of fillet. 



LENGTH OF FILLET TO COVER A STRIPPER. 

To find the length of a fillet, 1} inches wide, to cover a 
stripper 3 inches in diameter, and 31 inches long 

EXAMPLE. 
31 



279 
15} 

294} 

2 

3")589" 
12)196* 

~ 16~4 
Ans. 16 feet 4 inches, length of fillet 



CARDS AND CARDING. 105 

NUMBER OE TEETH TO THE SQUARE INCH OE EACH 
NUMBER OE CARD-WIRE. 

The number of card-teeth or points set in a square inch or 
a square foot of leather, depends upon the size of the wire 
which is used, ranging from No. 28 to 36. The wire in the 
likerin is generally coarse, and thinly set. In the top cards, 
also, it is set thinner than in other parts of the card. Sub- 
joined, we give the proportion, and the numbers of the wire. 

No. 28 wire, 275 points to. the sq. in. = 39,600 to the sq. ft. 



29 " 


300 


« 


it 


= 43,200 


a 


30 " 


325 


tt 


a 


= 46,800 


u 


31 " 


350 


it 


a 


- 50,400 


a 


32 " 


400 


a 


a 


= 57,600 


a 


33-34 


450 


a 


it 


= 64,800 


a 


35-36 


475 


u 


a 


= 67,400 


tt 



If 450 or 475 points of No. 35 or 36 wire are put in a 
square inch, it will be quite sufficient ; especially as the spin- 
ning in this country is generally done on the heavy system. 
for which a fine wire would not answer so well. The proper 
sizes of wire for clothing the different parts of the card, are : 

Filletting on likerin, 2 inches wide, No. 30 wire : 325 points 

to the square inch. 
Filletting for workers and strippers, l£ inches wide, No. 31 

or 32 wire : 325 points to the square inch. 
Filletting for doffers, 2 inches wide, No. 34 or 35 wire : 450 

or 475 points to the square inch. 



106 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

Sheets on main cylinder, 4 inches wide, No. 33, 34, or 35 

wire : 425 or 450 points to the square inch. 
Top cards, If inches wide, No. 81 or 32 wire : 325 points to 

the square inch. 

Some manufacturers prefer using No. 28 or 29 wire for 
likerins ; but it is too coarse and harsh. 

It makes but little difference whether the teeth are set in 
the leather in the form of a twill, or inserted in plain rows. 



THE DEAWING-FRAME. 

Drawing or doubling is the next operation through which 
the cotton has to pass after it has been carded. The ends, 
bands, or slivers, as they come from the card, are exceedingly 
tender and loose, the fibres of cotton not being yet arranged 
in the parallel form requisite for good spinning. Before any 
twist is given to the bands, the fibres should be in a proper 
position for the manufacture of smooth yarn. The doubling 
and drawing out of the bands, which accomplishes this per- 
fectly, is done on the drawing-frame. Some drawing-frames 
are constructed with three pair of rollers, and some with four 
pair ) the latter having the advantage of doing more work in 
the same time. The rollers in a drawing-frame are generally 
so adjusted, that the drawing is done between the first and 
third roller, the middle roller having but little influence on 
the result, so far as the stretching is concerned. Where there 
are three or four rollers, the drawing is performed twice; 



THE DRAWING-FRAME. 107 

each pair of rollers draws a certain amount. The distance 
between the rollers is so adjusted, that the longest fibie of the 
cotton does not reach from the centre of one roller to the 
centre of the other; this prevents the rollers from tearing 
the fibres, because the first pair of rollers pulls the fibres, 
while the second holds them fast. If, on the other hand, the 
distance between the rollers is too great, the filaments of cotton 
separate in unequal thicknesses, and the result is unequal 
yarn. It is more preferable to have the rollers too close to- 
gether, than to have them too far apart, provided they are 
always so far distant as not to injure the staple. The princi- 
pal object to be attained in drawing the bands is, to reduce 
their thickness after they have been doubled. Doubling and 
drawing effects the two-fold purpose of stretching the fibres 
of cotton, and equalising the bands. The more a band is 
doubled and eliminated, the more perfect should be the yarn 
spun from it ; but this process of drawing can, nevertheless, 
be carried too far. Excessive drawing, as well as excessive 
picking and carding, tends to weaken the fibre, and finally ren- 
ders it brittle and rotten. Still, if the machinery is kept in 
such perfect order as not to injure the cotton, it may be con- 
sidered impossible to eliminate the fibres to too great an ex- 
tent. The sliver from the last drawing-head should be of a 
silky lustre, and its component fibres should lie perfectly pa- 
rallel with the band and with each other. But little cotton 
is wasted in this operation ; the waste consists principally of 
those parts which have to be broken off in consequence of 
their running singly, or when the attendant, through negli- 
gence or inadvertence, misses a can, and gets behind-hand 
with the rollers. 



IOS AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

SIZES OF DRAWING-FRAMES. 

Ft. In. 

Diameter of pulley on horizontal main driving- 
dhaft 1 8 i 

Diameter of driven pulley on counter-shaft . . 9J 
Diameter of driving pulley on counter-shaft . . 1 | 

Diameter of frame-shaft — driver 1 

Diameter of driving-pulley on frame-shaft. ... 12 
Driving first, second, and third heads by pul- 
leys of the diameter of 6 

Driving the last head by a pulley of 4 J 



82 
177 
177 
180 
180 

420 
560 



DRAUGHT CALCULATIONS OE THESE HEADS. 

FIRST HEAD. 

Teeth. 

Pinion on front roller — driver 24 

Driving carrier-stud of — driven 48 

Change-pinion attached to carrier-stud — driver 40 

Driving middle roller by pinion of — driven 48 

Pinion on other end of middle roller — driver 24 

Pinion on back roller — driven 40 

Intermediate carrier-stud between the back and middle 

roller pinions 40 

The whole four heads have exactly the same pinions, with 
the exception of the change or draught pinions, which bear 
the following relative proportions. 

In. Teeth. Rev. 

First head, change pinion, and speed of 

front and back rollers . . 40 . . 420 



THE DRAWING-FRAME. 



109 



Teeth. 



Rev 



Second head, change pinion, and speed of 
front and back rollers 

Third head, change pinion, and speed of 
front and back rollers 

Fourth head, change pinion, and speed of 
front and back rollers 

Diameter of back and middle rollers .... 1 

Diameter of front rollers li 



36 . . 420 



32 . . 420 



28 . . 560 



DRAWING-FRAME OF ANOTHER SIZE. 

Ft. In. Rev 

Diameter of pulley on main shaft 1 10 . . 100 

Diameter of driven pulley on counter-shaft . . 10 . . 220 

Diameter of driving-pulley on counter-shaft. 1 2f . . 220 

Diameter of driven pulley on frame-shaft. . . 1 . . 270 

Diameter of driving-pulley on frame-shaft. . . 1 2 . . 270 
Diameter of driven pulley on first head, front 

roller ' 4 ..890 

Diameter of driven pulley on second and last 

heads 6 . . 629 

There are only three heads to these frames, and all the 
gearing and pinions are the same, with the exception of ihe 
change pinions on each head, which are as follows : — 

Teeth. 

Change pinion on first head 36 

Change pinion on second head 32 

Change pinion on third and last head from 27 to 30. . . 28 

The last head is used when alterations are made in the 
size of the stuff. It requires sometimes the use of a smaller 
pinion and sometimes of a larger, according to circumstances 
10 



110 , AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

DRAUGHT CALCULATIONS OF FIRST HEAD. 

In. Teeth 

Pinion on front roller — driver . . 24 

Driving carrier-stud of — driven . . 48 

Change pinion attached thereto — driver . . 36 

Driving middle roller by pinion — driven ........ . . 48 

Pinion on the other end of middle roller — driver, . . 24 

Driving carrier-stud of . . 40 

Driving back roller by pinion of— driven . . 40 

Diameter of front under roller — driven 1 \ . 

Diameter of back under roller — driver 1 . 

DRAWING-FRAME OF ANOTHER FORM. 

Diameter of pulley on main lying shaft . . . 

Driving counter-shaft by pulley of 1 

Driving pulley on counter-shaft 

Driving frame-shaft by pulley of 

Diameter of driving-pulleys on frame shaft, 
Driving 1st, 2d, and 3d heads by pulleys of 
Diameter of pulley on fourth and last head, 
Length of under rollers from stand to stand, 2 8 
Width of bosses, four under each roller. . . 5 \ 

Diameter of vent in the tube at the last head 

of the calender-roller r 3 F 

Extreme length of frame — four heads 17 1 

Extreme width, including cans 5 

Distance from centre to centre of front and 

middle rollers 1| 

Length of the longest staple of upland cotton 1 T \ 

The front under rollers of this frame are cast-steel. As 
all the front rollers of drawing-frames and speeders should be 
made of steel, the front under rollers of a spinning-machine 



Ft. 


In. 


Rev. 


1 


9 . 


82 


1 


1 . 


132 


1 


4 . 


132 




10 . 


211 


1 


2 . 


211 




6 . 


492 




5 . 


590 



THE DRAWING-FRAME. Ill 

are also much better if made of the same material. Steel 
front under rollers which have run for twelve years, are not 
near so much worn in the flutes and journals, as those made 
of iron, which have only been in use about three years. This 
is a proof of the great superiority of steel over iron rollers. 
In addition to this advantage, tbey work better, being free 
from the flaws, cracks, and other imperfections, which often 
cause other rollers to lap. 

DRAUGHT CALCULATIONS OF THE FIRST HEAD. 

Teeth. In 

Pinion on end of first roller — driver 80 

Driving head-shaft by pinion of — driven 60 

Pinion attached to the head-shaft — driver 36 

Driving middle roller by pinion of — driven 48 

Change-pinion on other end of head-shaft — driver, 36 

Driving back roller by pinion of — driven 60 

Diameter of front under roller — driven 

Diameter of back and middle rollers — driver .... 



it 
i 



Drivers. Driven. 

36 60 

30 60 



1080 3600 

4 = £ diam. back roller. 5 =£ diam. front roller. 



4320 4320)18000(4.16 Draught 1 

17280 into 4.16 



7200 
4320 



28800 
25920 



2880 remainder. 



112 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

1st head, front roller pinion 30; change pin. 36; draught 4.16 
2d " " " 28; " " 34; " 4.72 

3d " " " 27; " " 32; " 5.36 

4th " " " 26; " " 30; « 5.76 

The draught on these frames is altered both by pinions on 
the front roller, and by change pinions on the head-shaft. 
This is the most convenient plan of a drawing-franie for mak- 
ing changes. In calculating the draught, the pinion on the 
head-shaft, which drives the middle roller, should be omitted ; 
as also the pinion on the middle roller, because they do not 
operate 



TO FIND THE DRAUGHT OF ANY MACHINE WITH THREE 
ROLLERS. 

By the draught of a machine, is understood the difference 
between the length of the cotton coming from between the 
calender rollers, or front drawing-rollers, and that which is 
passing in at the back rollers of the machine. 

RULE. 

Multiply the number of teeth (say 36,) contained in the 
change-pinion attached to the third carrier, by the number 
(say 24,) in the pinion on the front roller. The product 
must be multiplied by 4, for the diameter of the back roller, 
which is 1 inch, or 4 fourths of an inch. Then multiply the 
stud carrier, of 48, by the pinion of 48 on the middle roller, 
and that product by the diameter of the front rollers, which, 
if lj inches in diameter, makes f, or 5. 



THE DRAWING-FRAME. 113 



Drivers. 


Driven. 


38 


48 


24 


48 


144 


384 


72 


192 


864 


2304 


4 


5 


3456 


3456)11520(3.33 = draught of the head 




10368 




11520 




10368 




11520 




10368 




1152 remainder. 



When taking the draught of a head, the middle roller is 
iiot included in the calculation, because the motion is imparted 
to the back roller; but, had the motion been communicated 
to the middle roller, then the back roller would have been 
omitted. 



SIMPLE METHOD OF TAKING THE DRAUGHT. 

There is an easy mode of taking the draught of drawing- 
heads and speeders, without going to the trouble of counting 
the teeth of the various pinions, or taking the diameter of 
the rollers. Break off the ends from the first can close to 
the calender rollers ; then, by a foot rule, laid to the stuff at 
the back rollers, close to their bite, measure off six inches; 
10* 



114 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

roll the sliver at the end of the six inches with your ungei 
and thumb, and make a mark. The measure taken at one 
end of the back roller will be sufficient j there is no necessity 
for measuring along the whole head. Turn the head slowly, 
until the six inches measured off have been fairly run through 
up to the mark. Break off the sliver that has run through, 
close to the calender rollers, being very careful, at the same 
time, not to stretch it. Lay it on a smooth board, or a clean 
part of the floor, where its length may be measured in inches, 
which, when divided by six, will give the draught of the 
frame. If there should be a draught between the front and 
calender rollers, they should be altered, as it has a bad effect. 
If the sliver measures 28 inches, 6)2 8 (4f ; that is, 1 drawn 
into 4|. If 30, thus, 6)30(5 ; that is, a draught of 1 into 
5 : any remainder is a fractional part of the divisor. This is 
a plain and easy way, and answers the purpose very well, par- 
ticularly, if it is desirable to know the draught of a frame, 
and there is not sufficient time to count the wheels. Too 
great a draught in any one head has an injurious effect on 
the staple of the cotton. In another portion of this work, 
we shall lay down the rules for taking the draught at the dif- 
ferent machines, in a correct and proper manner. 



TRYING THE STUFF. 

The last head of a drawing-frame is the best place for trying 
the stuff. If anything goes wrong, it can here soon be de- 
tected, and a proper remedy immediately applied. The old 
plan was, to try it from the stretcher or the roving-frame, and 
if it was found to be too light or too heavy, the weight of the 
lap was altered at the cards. This is not the proper place to 
make temporary changes, and to regulate the stuff; it is by 



THE DRAWING-FRAME. 115 

far too distant from the roving-frame, and several hundred- 
weight of rovings may be spoiled by this method in the 
course of a month, by being run through either too light or 
too heavy. There is already too much work done between 
the spreading-machine and the speeders, and there is no pos- 
sibility of checking it; to prevent mischief, try the stuff at 
the last heads, and make slight temporary alterations there, 
The mode of doing this is as follows : — 

Break off all the cans at the front of the last heads, close 
to the calender rollers, and run the head so that the ends just 
tor.ch the floor, or the surface of the rotary pulleys on which 
the receiving-cans belonging to the last head revolve. Kepeat 
this twice, and put all the ends together. The distance from 
the calender-rollers to the surface of the pulleys is about 
3 feet 4^ inches; the double of this will make 6 feet 9 inches, 
or, if there are four heads, 27 feet in all. When a proper 
standard has been fixed upon, the weight of the stuff in grains 
should be ascertained by the use of a pair of small but cor- 
rect scales. If it becomes too light or too heavy, owing to a 
change of cotton or a change of weather, for both these causes 
will produce the like effect, from bad mixing, careless and in- 
correct weighing or spreading in the picking-room, or from a 
defeat at the drawing-heads, put on a pinion one, tooth larger 
to increase its weight six or seven grains, if it is required, or 
one containing a tooth less to decrease the weight that much. 
This change will depend, in a greater or less degree, on the 
standard fixed upon, the size of the roving, and the numbers 
of the yarn that is being spun. 

The stuff can be tried equally as well on the yarn quad- 
rant, if there is one in the factory. The proper system is, 
to try the stuff regularly every two or three hours ; if any 
change has been made in the weight of the lap, or in ths 



116 AMERICAY .OTTON SPINNER. 

card-pinions, it will be well to try it repeatedly, until it again 
becomes right. In a trial of the stuff made on the last-de- 
scribed drawing-frames, by the yarn quadrant, the 27 feet 
would weigh from 32 to 34 ; this would make, on the smaL, 
scales, from 210 to 214 grains, and would make, in roving, 
2.42, or nearly 2 J hank roving. The yarn spun from it will 
average from 18 to 25 hanks to the pound. 



CHANGE-PINIONS. 

There should always be a plentiful supply of change-pinions 
for the drawing-heads, containing from 24 to 40 teeth, and 
also an ample supply of pinions for speeders and cards, to be 
ready for the accomplishment of any desired change, or to 
meet any emergency which may arise. 



DRAWING AND DOUBLING. 

When drawing-heads are on the cards, their draught, and 
that of the four heads of the drawing-frame, should be regu- 
lated as follows. Drawing-head at the cards, 1 into 2 \ or 2 J : first 
head of drawing-frame, 1 to 3 1 • second head, 4 J ; third head, 
5 i ; fourth head, 6£ ; and the speeder, 6 J or 7. It will not do 
much harm to the heads to draw less, but if the draught was 
increased it would prove hurtful. A great deal of yarn is 
spoiled by being overdrawn at the speeders j the fibre of the 
cotton becomes broken and weakened, and cannot be made to 
produce good yarn. If the draught at the spinning-frames 
does not exceed 1 into 8 or 9, it will not spoil the yarn : this 
proportion is, however, often exceeded, for the purpose of 
keeping as large a number of spindles running with as few 
preparatory machines as possible. These are practical errors, 



t 

THE DRAWING-FRAME. 117 

as the yarn will not be so good, where the draught is too 
strong. "Where there are drawing-heads to the cards, the 
stuff will come light from them, and if there is no doubler, 
12 ends can be brought up to the back of the first head. 

Thus, 12 ends run into 1 can at first head. 
6 at second head. 

72 
6 at third head. 

432 

3 at fourth and last head. 

1296 
There it is doubled 1296 times. 



DRAWING WITH DOUBLERS 

In the drawing-frames with three heads, the cotton is only 
doubled 216 times, which is too little for twist or chain. 
Frames with three heads are much better if they have a 
doubler attached to them. Five cans may run up at this 
doubler; where the cards have a drawing-head to each card, 
and no railroads, four cans from the doubler run up to the 
first head instead of twelve. These four cans would be equal 
to twenty cards running into one can. These four cans at the 
second head, running into one, would be equal to eighty 
double ; two cans running into one at the third head, would 
be equal to 160. If the doubling is continued through four 
heads on this plan, with only four cans at the back of each 
head, or one can to every roller-boss, all running into one can 
in front, the doubling would be 320; or, if the stuff would 



118 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

admit of two cans running up to each roller-boss at the fourth 
head, without increasing the draught more than 1 into 6£, 
the doubling may be carried to 640. If a doubler is used 
on the stuff, previous to putting it up to the first head, it is 
an excellent plan for preventing the stuff from running single, 
and is a saving of waste, by using four cans at the back of all 
the heads instead of twelve. By the last system of working 
there is always more or less single running, whereas, if there 
were only four ends running up, it would be impossible for 
the stuff to run through single without being noticed, and the 
head stopped. Where such a number of ends ran up, this 
single running may occur without detection. Large cans 
should be used, especially in front of the doublers, and at the 
back of the first heads. By this means, two hands can attend 
to six heads with as much ease as they could attend to three, 
with a greater number of cans. A saving of cans will also 
be effected, and the first head may be driven considerably 
slower than usual, which will be of great advantage. The 
front roller then requires but 534 revolutions per minute, in- 
stead of 890; which decrease of speed is very favourable for 
this frame, as the rollers will not heat then, and cause them 
to lick up the cotton and lap, thereby making waste and losing 
time. This plan of doubling is an old one, although it has, 
of late years, been adopted with advantage at some mills. 



JENKS' DRAWING-FRAME. 

One of the most perfect drawing-frames is that patented by 
Jenks, having four rollers. It has three heads, each working 
four coilers, which makes an aggregate of twelve coilers to 
the frame. The rollers are all made of the best cast steel 



THE DRAWING-FRAME. 1 L\t 

and the first one makes 800 revolutions per minute. Thi^ 
machine yields 1000 pounds of first quality sliver in ten 
hours. 

SLIVER FROM THE RAILROAD. 

Where there is a railroad, on which the cans run for twelve 
cards, each twenty-four inches wide, the stuff will be doubled 
as follows. Three cans from the railroad head run up at the 
doublers, which consist simply of two rollers, the top one 
having a weight attached ; this is equal to thirty-six card cans. 
Four of these cans run up at the first head, and fall into one 
can. This is continued through all the heads, with the ex- 
ception of the fourth and last, at which the stuff is not doubled. 
By this system, the stuff, including that from the twelve 
cards, doubles 2304 times before it reaches the fourth head ; 
which draws but does not double. 

CHANGING THE DRAUGHT. 

A change in the roving for the purpose of making finer 
yarn, where it would be improper to add to the draught of 
the spinning-machine, may be done in the following manner. 
If No. 20 yarn is being spun, and it is desirable to alter the 
roving so that No. 25 yarn can be made, and the stuff from 
the last head weighs 214 grains, how much must its weignt 
be to produce the yarn required ? 

EXAMPLE. 
No. Grains. No. 

20 : 214 : : 25 : Ans. 

20 

25)4280 



171.2 or 171} 



120 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

It appears from this, that to alter it five numbers, the stuff 
must be made 43 grains lighter. 

If there is a pinion containing twenty-eight teeth, on the 
last head, what sized pinion would it require to make the 
change 1 

EXAMPLE. 
Grains. Pins. Grains. 

214 : 28 : : 171 : Am. 

28 



1368 
342 



214)4788(22 teeth, or not quite 6 
428 of an alteration. 

508 
428 

80 remainder. 

We perceive that it would require less than six teeth of an 
alteration to produce this change. This would be too great a 
change to make on any one head; but a difference of two 
*)eeth may safely be made on the first heads, and three on the 
last, if necessary. When a change of this kind is made, all 
the cans should be run out of the frames. 



CHANGING THE SIZE OF THE ROVING. 

If the roving was sufficient before, there will be no necessity 
of doing such heavy carding. A smaller pinion might be put 
on the bottom of the side-shaft, and a part of the alteration 
may be effected by a change of two or three teeth on the 



TIIE DRAWING-ERAME. Til 

eard-pinions. If the feeding at the spreading-machine is too 
heavy to do justice to the cotton, the weight of the lap may 
he altered, which will effect the desired change at once, and 
without any further trouble. If the weight of the lap is 
two pounds, and No. 20 yarn is being spun, how much must 
it bo reduced to make it suitable for No. 25 yarn ? 





EXAMPLE. 




No. 


Grains. 


No. 




20 


: 32 : : 


25 : 


: Ans. 




20 


| oum 






25)640(25 


363. 




50 








140 








125 







Ans. 1 pound 10 J ounce, and a trifle over. 

If the whole change is made in the lap, it will require the 
weight of the lap to be reduced nearly 5 \ ounces. When 
changes of this kind, or, in fact, any changes of consequence 
become necessary, the manager and carder should consult to- 
gether regarding them. Changes of this nature can be made 
with the greatest advantage to the work ; but the place where 
it can be done with the least trouble should not be selected 
for that purpose, whem by doing so, a part of these advantages 
may be sacrificed. 

If the stuff from the last head proves to be 220 grains, 
and the speeders are making a 2 \ hank roving, what should 
be the weight of the stuff to make a 2=1 hank roving? 
11 



122 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

EXAMPLE. 
Hanks. Grains. Hanks. 

2\ : 220 : : 2* : Ans. 
9 : 220 : : 10 



198,0 = 198 grains. 

If, with the weight of the stuff at 198 grains, 2| hank 
roving is being made, and it is desirable to make three hank 
roving without altering the speeder, what should be the 
weight of the stuff from the last head to effect this object ? 

EXAMPLE. 
Hanks. Grains. Hanks. 

2} : 198 : : 3 : Ans. 

2 5 2 

5 6)990 6 
165 Ans. 

Thus, we find that it requires a weight of 165 grains to 
make three hank roving. This alteration must be made in 
the lap on the spreading-machine, on the cards, or on the 
drawing-frames, according to circumstances. 

If, with a lap weighing 1 lb. 12 oz., the cards are working 
with a pinion containing 23 teeth on the bottom of the side- 
shaft, and it is found to be necessary, in order to keep the 
cards in rollers, to feed thicker or heavier at the spreading- 
machine, and to increase the weight of the lap to 2 pounds, 
and still keep the carding at its previous size, what sized 
pinion will be required on the bottom of the side-shaft ? 



THE DRAWING-FRAME. 123 

EXAMPLE. 
Ounces. Pinion. Ounces. 

28 : 23 : : 32 : Ans. 
23 

84 
56 

32)644(20 Ans. 
64 

004 remainder. 

A pinion of twenty teeth at the bottom of the side-shaft 
will answer the purpose. 

If 2 hank roving is being made, with the weight of the 
lap at 2 pounds, and it is desirable to make 2 \ hank roving 
without altering the draught of the cards, frames, or speeders, 
what must be the weight of the lap to produce this result ? 

EXAMPLE. 
Hanks. Ounces. Hanks. 

2 : 32 : : 2J : Ans. 

2 4 2 

4 5)128 5 



25| ounces. 
The lap must weigh a little over 25 \ ounces. 

If 2 hank roving is being made, with a 28 tooth change- 
pinion on the last head of the drawing-frame, and a necessity 
arises for its alteration to 2 \ hank roving, what must be the 
size of the pinion used on the last head ? 





EXAMPLE. 


Hank 

2 
2 


3. Pinion. 

: 28 : 
4 


Hank 

: 2|- 

2 


4 


5)112 


5 



124 • AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 



Ans. 



22| Ans. 22f teeth in pinion 

Here would be a change of five or six teeth to be made on 
the last head, which would, perhaps, increase the draught too 
much ; there might, also, be no pinions of the required size ; 
and, even if they could be obtained, their use might cause the 
back rollers to run too slow, and prevent them from keeping 
up the cans from the next head. It would be better to alter 
two teeth on each of the three heads, or alter two or three 
teeth at the bottom of the side-shaft, or make the lap lighter 
on the spreading-machine. Any alteration at the speeders, 
having a tendency to increase their draught, is not advisable, 
unless the draught is less than 1 into 6. Better work, how- 
ever, is done by the speeders, when their draught does not 
exceed 1 into 5. When any material change is contemplated, 
endeavour to ascertain by examination the most advantageous 
place for making the alteration. No certain rule can be laid 
down for making these changes, owing to the variety of con- 
trolling circumstances, which can only be known to the ma- 
nager and carder of the factory. If they understand their 
business properly, they will make such alterations to the best 
advantage; quantity and quality being duly estimated. It 
frequently happens, in changing from one number to another, 
owing to an error in overdrawing the stuff on some one of 
the machines, that the operation is attended with bad conse- 
quences. When any important alteration is being made in 
the draught of the machines, long-established rules and ap- 



ROVING. 125 

proved principles should not be departed from, for the sake 
of making experiments or trying new plans. Without being 
thoroughly acquainted with the nature and quality of the 
material, and the principle upon which the machinery in use 
is constructed, no one can be fully warranted in making new 
experiments. It is true that discoveries cannot be made, or 
inventions perfected, without trials and experiments ; but the 
capacity to invent and perfect machinery is a talent which is 
not in the possession of every individual. 



ROVING. 

The fifth operation through which the cotton has to pass, 
is the roving, or first spinning process; it is performed on the 
roving-frames, such as the slubbin, fly-frame, belt-speeder, 
tube-frame, and numerous other machines of the same con- 
struction. The elongated slivers become, by the time they 
reach this portion of the machinery, so thin and tender, that 
they would not hold together, if they were not slightly twisted, 
or held together by a pressure imparted to them. If the 
system of twisting is adopted, it should never be carried 
further than is necessary to make the roving strong enough to 
withstand the winding and unwinding of the bobbins, as too 
great a twist injures the quality of the yarn. The operation 
of roving is, in many cases, frequently repeated, according to 
the degree of fineness required in the yarn. Coarse yarn, or 
yarn under No. 20, may be spun of a good quality by re- 
11* 



126 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

ceiving but one twist, or none at all, as on the speeders. Fine 

numbers require repeated twisting on various machines. 

A preliminary spinning process, in which some twist is 

given to the sliver, is frequently performed at the drawing- 

"' ' - ' : •- involve. This is a very good plan, 

and is more generally performed now than formerly, especially 

h old not be given 
to each 2 J or 3 J inches of sliver. A coarse band requires 
more twi n a fine one. The revolving cans are placed 

for this purpose on a horizontal revolving wheel, which is 
so arranged as to be flush with the floor of the factory. From 
these cans the sliver passes to the fly-frame or speeder, if it 
luired for coarse numbers; if fine yarn is wanted, the 
roving must first pass to the slubbin, and from thence to the 
fly-frame. 

The ns of the slubbin and fly-frames are considered 

1 enefieial to the quality of the yarn than those of the 

be expensive character of these machines is an 

idoption. Warp of every kind and 

r should jpnn from roving made on these frames, 

the increased expense attending their use being amply repaid 

by the facility with which >n. rilling may be spun 

the roving of the speeders, as a little roughness in the 

r of no consequence. The yarn 

made from the roving of these frames may be considered, 

when on the loci 

able than that made f: m the same y the operations 

of the 



ROVING. 



127 



SPEEDERS. 
DIMENSIONS OF BELT-SPEEDERS. 

Ft. In. 

Diameter of pulley on main horizontal 
shaft 1 10 

Diameter of driven pulley on counter- 
shaft 11 

Diameter of driving-pulley on counter- 
shaft 110 

Diameter of pulley on front roller of 

speeder 5f 

Diameter of pulley on the other end 

of the front roller 2 J 

Driving small parallel shaft by a slid- 
ing pulley 6 

Bevel wheel on other end of this shaft, 

Driving condensing-shaft by bevel of, 

Diameter of the pulley on the other 

end of this shaft 5 

Driving condensing-strap or twist-belt, 

the width of which is If 

Driving pinion on speeder f. roller . . 

Driving carrier-stud of 

Change-pinion attached to carrier-stud, 

Driving back-roller by wheel of .... 

Pinion on other end of back roller . . 

Intermediate carrier-stud 

Pinion on middle roller 

Diameter of front under roller 1 1 

Diameter of back and middle rollers, 1 

Wheel on front roller, driving calen- 
der rollers 



Teeth. Rev. 

100 
200 
200 
765 



30 
30 



'28 
74 
31 

60 

28 
40 

24 



30 



Ft. In. 


Teeth 




. . 76 


3* 




11 10 


. . 


2 10 


. # 



128 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

Wheel on front roller, driving bobbin-rollers, 

Diameter of bobbin-rollers 

Extreme length of speeder with 12 ends . . 
Width of speeder, including cans 



DRAUGHT OF THIS SPEEDER. 

EXAMPLE. 
Drivers Driven. 

31 74 

28 60 

248 4440 

62 5 diameter of front roller. 



868 3472)22200(6.3 

4 diam. b. roller. 20832 



3472 1368 remainder. 

Ans. Draught 1 into 6.3, nearly. 



BELTS ON SPEEDERS. 

The belt of this speeder must neither be kept too slack nor 
too tight, for it will produce bad effects on the roving in either 
case. If it is too tight it will condense too hard, rendering 
it a matter of impossibility to draw the roving evenly in the 
spinning-rollers. If the belt is too slack, the roving will be 
so soft as to break readily, and will not run off the bobbin 
cleanly. 

Speeders are generally driven much faster than there is any 
necessity for, usually making 900 revolutions per minute. 



ROVING. 129 

This great speed causes the top rollers to jump, if there hap- 
pens to be the least inequality in their covering, thereby cut- 
ting and spoiling the roving. This evil is aggravated, if the 
water-wheel or steam-engine runs faster at one time than at 
another, owing to the stoppage of part of the machinery. If 
the speed is reduced to 770 or 765 revolutions, these ma- 
chines will do more work and do it better. The hank roving 
is nearly 2 J or 2.45; this is spun by the mules into yarn 
ranging from No. 18 to 24, or on an average, No. 22 f. 
Eight speeders, having each twelve ends, or ninety-six ends in 
all, will turn off a sufficient quantity of roving to run 8064 
mule spindles, producing 8320 pounds of No. 22 J yarn per 
week, if full time is made ; being an average of nearly fouv 
hanks to the spindle. There are, therefore, 1008 mule spin- 
dles to each speeder. 

The untwisted roving, made on machines of this descrip- 
tion, will not make, on the spinning-machines manufactured 
at the present day, as good yarn as that which is twisted. The 
back and middle rollers should be close together, and there 
should not be a greater distance between the centres of the 
back and middle rollers, than there is between the centres of 
the middle and front rollers. If there is a great distance be- 
tween the rollers, which have also a considerable amount of 
draught, and the roving has not sufficient strength to hold it 
together, it will draw apart in an irregular manner; for, when 
the roving yields to the draught between the back and middle 
rollers, a large portion of it is drawn out of a thin place, and 
passes through in the same state to be formed into yarn. Both 
the light and heavy parts of the roving are equally reduced 
in size, by which the thin roving will suffer, as a matter of 
course. 

These machines perform a large amount of work with a 



130 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

very small attendant expense, and therefore make cheap roving, 
but not of a superior quality. This has induced the owners 
of numerous cotton mills to bring it into use, much to the 
injury of their yarn. If it were possible to impart a perma- 
nent twist to the rovings made on this description of speeders, 
they would be very valuable machines. The speeders which 
give the twist to the rovings are the spindle and the fly, which 
move so slowly that the front rollers cannot be driven at more 
than one-third of the speed of the belt-speeder, owing to the 
vibration of the spindle and the fly. This last description of 
speeders is certainly preferable for making good yarn on the 
spinning-machines now in use. 

The roving made on the counter-twist speeders is faulty, on 
account of its being first twisted hard and then untwisted. 
The end passes through so rapidly from the guide to the 
bobbin, its speed being at the rate of 200 feet per minute, and 
the twisting and untwisting is performed at such short inter- 
vals, that it laps the outer fibres of the cotton around the 
body of the roving, and prevents it from drawing freely, and 
from making a uniform thread. That part of the roving 
around which the fibres are twisted, will not yield to the 
draught in a regular manner, but comes through the rollers 
iu a thick mass, and the part which follows it will be much 
too thin. Any person taking the trouble to examine the 
roving made on these speeders through a magnifying-glass, 
will find an ample proof of the manner in which the fibres 
are wound around the roving. This is the great fault in the 
roving made on these machines; if a remedy could be de- 
vised for it, it would be a great improvement. 



ROVING. 131 



ECLIPSE SPEEDER. 



The condensing-strap, or twist-belt principle, is borrowed 
from the eclipse speeder. It makes roving very much like 
the latter, but many cotton-spinners say it is better, because 
the fibres of the cotton are not wound around the roving like 
they are in the other machine. There is, however, but little 
difference.. Be this as it may, the eclipse speeders are frequently 
preferred on account of the small amount of space required 
for their accommodation, not occupying more than a common- 
sized bureau, and the quantity of roving they produce com- 
pared with the small quantity of room and power they re- 
quire. The bobbins stand or rather lay across the carriage, 
at right angles with the rollers. This plan requires a roller 
but a trifle longer than a common throstle roller. These 
speeders may be driven at a rapid speed without causing the 
rollers to jump in the manner those of the belt-speeders do, 
which are full twice their length. The front rollers of the 
eclipse speeder may be driven at a speed of from 900 to 1200 
revolutions per minute, and ten spindles or ends will keep 
1200 mule-spindles supplied with 2| hank roving, spinning 
No. 24 or 25 yarn. This is a great amount of work, to be 
accomplished by a small speeder, with but ten ends. They 
are now constructed with two roller-beams and a double 
draught, so that the stuff can be run up double behind them, 
or two cans run into one end, which improves the roving con- 
siderably, and helps to correct any defects which may occur 
in a single end. These machines are very profitable to mill- 
owners ; but some practice is necessary to enable any person 
to work them to advantage ; which, however, may be said 
with propriety of all other machines. Any person who has 
been accustomed to the operations of cotton machinery, and 



132 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

will take pains to study the principles upon which these ma- 
chines are constructed, will soon be able to work them to the 
greatest advantage. 



HOW TO BECOME ACQUAINTED WITH MACHINERY. 

There is no better method of gaining a thorough knowledge 
of the principles which regulate the movements of a machine, 
than to take it apart and re-construct it. This will give auy 
person a thorough knowledge of all the parts of a machine, 
and make him its master; so that, if any accident should 
happen, he will be able to discover what is the matter, and 
how to put it in good running order again. 



SPEEDER-BOBBINS AND SKEWERS. 

All these machines should stand firm, level, and square, 
and each speeder should be provided with two setts of skew- 
ers, so that one set of bobbins may be filling, while another 
is in course of preparation. The full bobbins, made on the 
speeders which do not twist the roving, must be handled very 
carefully, and laid in boxes, in nice, regular order, the moment 
they are doffed. If properly made on the speeders, and not 
rubbed or spoiled by rough and careless handling, the bob- 
bins will run well in the mule-creels. The mule-skewers 
should have well-formed wire points, not so sharp, however, 
as to cut the creel steps, but slightly rounded ; glass steps are 
the best for use. The creel should stand near the roller-beam, 
but at a distance from the levers, and the skewers should be 
as nearly in a perpendicular position as possible. Some spin- 
ners prefer those speeders* the bobbins of which run on wires 
instead of skewers. It is true, they save the trouble of 



ROVING. 133 

skewering at both the speeders and mules; but they require 
long, awkward, moving stands, which cause the speeders to 
take up more room, and the wires are liable to become bent 
and out of order. Taking everything into consideration, the 
gkewer speeders are preferable to the latter. The heavy iron 
skewers act as weights in place of the folding stands. If wire 
bobbins could be so constructed as to run in the stands, or a 
plan could be adopted by which small rollers or pullies, run- 
ning on the ends of the wires, like the old tube bobbins, could 
be brought into use, they would answer very well. Skewering 
takes up a great deal of time. 

It is necessary that speeder-bobbins should run very true, 
for if they do not they will jump on the calender-rollers, 
which would cause the roving to be laid on the bobbins irregu- 
larly instead of smoothly, and, as a necessary consequence, 
be the cause of the roving breaking while running off the 
bobbins. A large number of full bobbins are spoiled in this 
manner. Imperfect bobbins should be thrown aside when 
empty, and either not used at all, or turned off true. 



SLUBBING AND FLY-FRAMES. 

It is beyond the limits of this work to furnish a descrip- 
tion of the slubbing and the fly-frame. These machines are 
so complicated, that it would be almost impossible to describe 
their mode of operation without the assistance of accurate 
drawings, which we have not the facility of obtaining at pre- 
sent, and we shall therefore be under the necessity of post- 
poning a full description of them until some future opportu- 
tunity. The first roller on both a slubbing and a fly-frame 
never moves as fast as those on the speeders which do not 
twist, because the length of the spindles will not allow of it, 
12 



134 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

A new kind of spindles have lately been put in operation, 
which promise a greater degree of speed, but the experiment 
has been made too recently to afford a result sufficient to be 
depended upon. This spindle is held in three places, at 
the bottom, in the middle, and at the top ; the lower part of 
it is square, and the bobbins are drawn from below. 



THE SLUBBING-FRAME. 

The common slubbing-frame is generally very well known ; 
it receives the sliver from the drawing-frames, either twisted 
or untwisted, and converts it into coarse roving, which is 
again doubled at the fly-frame. Slubbers are made of from 
twenty-four to forty-eight spindles. The large machines are 
very disadvantageous, if not particularly well built; small 
machines may be driven at a greater speed than those of a 
larger size. One spindle of a slubber will keep six spindles 
of a fly-frame supplied with roving ; that is, forty-eight spin- 
dles on the slubbing-frame will do a sufficient amount of work 
to keep 300 spindles in operation on the fly-frame. 

THE ELY-FRAME. 

The fly-frame is generally supplied with sixty spindles, but 
sometimes it has as many as 100. Many manufacturers prefer 
the small machine, on account of its greater speed, and the 
small amount of noise which it makes comparatively with the 
larger one. "Where many fly-frames are in operation it may 
be of advantage to have them of a small size ; still, there are 
machines running 100 spindles which work admirably. A 
fiy-frame of 100 spindles will make 250 pounds of 2 hank 
riving, and 200 pounds of 2 J hank; finer roving will be pro- 



ROVING. 135 

duced in a smaller proportion. The front roller of a slubber 
may be driven at a speed of 100 or 120 revolutions per mi- 
nute; that of a fly-frame, 250 to 300 revolutions: this, how- 
ever, depends entirely upon the spindles and the execution of 
the machinery. Good spindles may be driven fast, while 
those of an imperfect character must necessarily be driven at 
a slow rate. The spindles and rollers of these machines must 
be made of good steel; when constructed of iron or a mixture 
of iron and steel, they make inferior work. The bobbins are 
usually formed of wood, the barrels being light and hollow, 
and the heads made of thin veneers, glued together. When 
the spring-finger is applied to the fly, the bobbins are wound 
much harder, and require a great deal more roving than when 
this finger is not used ; but when it is used, the bobbins with 
heads can be dispensed with, if the motion of the rail is so 
arranged as to wind each layer shorter. The bobbins used 
will then be of the same form as those which are in use on 
the belt-speeder, with ends like cones, and requiring no heads. 
In this case, the bobbins being simply of the light barrel pat- 
tern, are made light, and the roving is not liable to be pressed 
in at the heads, and to break at that place on the spinning- 
machines. 

The fly-frame is the last machine used in the preparatory 
department of a cotton-mill ; it is from this that the rovings 
or spongy cords are carried to the spinning-machines. When 
yarn as fine as No. 60 is spun, the roving is finished on mules, 
for the reason that the fly-frames are not well suited to the 
production of rovings finer than six hanks, and fine numbers 
require a perfect machine to accomplish the object. The fine 
qualities of yarn, ranging from No. 50, upwards, are not 
manufactured to such an extent as to require any particular 
mention of them. 



IS 6 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 



GENERAL REMARKS ON DRAWING AND ROVING. 

The drawing-frame is a very necessary machine in the 
preparation of cotton for the process of spinning. It is a 
beautiful mechanical contrivance for extending and refining 
the sliver, and at the same time laying the fibres of the cotton 
straight, parallel, and smooth. This process reflects the highest 
credit on the inventor of both the drawing and roving-frame. 
The drawing-frame requires the particular attention of the 
master-carder, as well as of the hands attending it, as it is 
necessary, if fine yarn is to be made, that every operation per- 
formed upon this machine should be closely scrutinized. So 
much dependence did the inventor place upon it, that, upon 
the appearance of bad yarn in any of his cotton-mills, he told 
his carders to pay more attention to their drawing-frames, 
being convinced that if they were working properly, all the 
rest of the machinery would operate well. 

IMPORTANCE OP DOUBLING. 

In most of the factories but little attention is paid to the 
operation of doubling at the drawing-frames. If the cotton 
has been previously well cleaned and carded, no operation is 
so well calculated to produce good yarn, as a considerable 
amount of doubling on the drawing-frame and the roving- 
machines. 

AMOUNT OF DOUBLING. 

Stuff may be doubled 8000 times before it leaves the can, 
or goes to the roving-frame. It may then be doubled again 



DRAWING AND ROVING. 137 

en the stretcher bobbins, and span with double rovings at the 
mules, which will be doubling it 32,000 times. This is done 
for yarn numbering from 150 to 200 hanks to the pound, but 
there will be no harm in doing it for other yarn. Good yarn 
may be made, however, without so much doubling, for very 
good yarn is made, ranging from No. 20 to No. 40, with the 
twenty-fifth part of this doubling. No. 20 or 25 yarn-twist 
should be doubled not less than 1200 or 2000 times. 



SPEED OF DRAWING-FRAMES. 

The speed of the drawing-frames depends on that of the 
cards, as well as the draught of the cards, and the number 
of them running. The number of card-ends which pass up 
at the back of the first head of the drawing-frame is also 
regulated by these circumstances. One drawing-frame, with 
three or four heads, requires ten, eleven, or twelve cards, if 
they have no drawing-heads, and five, six, or even seven cards, 
with drawing-heads, to keep it in operation. 

When the number of cards to each drawing-frame has been 
decided upon, calculate the length of sliver they will deliver 
per minute ; then regulate the draught of the first head at 
the proportion of about 1 into 3£, or 1 into 3 J. Calculate 
at what speed the front roller must be driven, with eight or 
twelve cans running up, to take up the sliver of the back 
roller as fast as the cards deliver it. A drawing-frame, work- 
ing for ten or eleven cards, having no drawing-heads, and the 
frame having a draught of 1 into 3 on the first head, with 
twelve cans running up, would require the front roller to run 
at a speed of 450 revolutions per minute, to use all the sliver. 
The front roller of a frame working for six cards, with draw- 
ing-heads in front, the draught of the card-heads being 2 J, 
12* 



138 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

and the draught of the first head of the drawing-frame, 3$, 
with twelve ends running up at the back, should run at a 
speed of 760 revolutions per minute; with seven cards, the 
speed should be increased to 890 revolutions per minute. If 
a doubler be used to run up four card-cans, and four of these 
are at the first head, a speed of 670 revolutions will be suffi- 
cient ; and with five card-ends running up at the doubler, a 
speed of 536 revolutions per minute will be sufficient for the 
front roller. This reduction of speed is of great general ad- 
vantage to both the frame and the work. 

Cards with drawing heads will usually deliver about 670 
inches per minute. The first head of the drawing-frame must 
be able to take it up faster than this, as it is often necessary 
to stop it. From this calculation, it appears that seven cards 
will deliver about 4690 inches of sliver per minute. The 
back roller should run at a speed of 200 revolutions per 
minute, which, at a diameter of 1 inch, or a circumference of 
3| inches, takes up 629 inches of one end, and when twelve 
ends are in use, 7548 inches. By this it would appear that 
these heads might run slower, and yet keep up with the cards ; 
but such is not the case. 



TOP ROLLERS. 

Too much care cannot be taken at the drawing-frames and 
speeders, to make good piecing ; no lumps or single strands 
should be allowed to pass through the rollers, if it can be 
avoided. If any impurities pass through, or any disorders 
occur here, have every inch of cotton that is spoiled taken 
back or cut out. Bad piecing, and even little bits of single, 
are productive of great injury, being the cause of bad spinning 
and irregular yarn. Particular attention should be paid to 



DRAWING AND ROVING. 139 

the top rollers ; it is necessary that they should he perfectly 
level and true, and every precaution should he used to pre« 
vent them from cutting the stuff. Cutting may he owing t<5 
several causes, such as light weights, or their heing improper!) 
hung, the stirrup heing on one side of the saddle, the stirrup- 
hook heing wrong on the lever, waste collecting around thd 
journals or the middle of the rollers, or the saddles on th<! 
pivots wanting oil. It sometimes happens that, owing to ne- 
gligence in covering the top roller, one end of it becomes 
smaller in diameter than the other, which will unfit it for the 
production of good work. Every carder should have a small 
pair of callipers, with which to test the accuracy of the top 
rollers. 

CUTTING AT THE DRAWING-FRAMES. 

It is advisable to let the front top rollers have two thick- 
nesses of cloth under the leather, as it makes them more 
elastic, and they draw better and last longer. Sometimes 
the cloth will become loose and rise into ridges; if this hap- 
pens to any of the top rollers, it will make the head cut. It 
sometimes happens that the heads are cut by either the bottom 
or top rollers, which get out of a parallel position, owing to 
the screws working loose, or caused by the tremor of the 
pinions, or other circumstances. Accidents of this nature are 
of frequent occurrence in the best regulated establishments; 
and therefore the manager or master-carder cannot be too at- 
tentive to those portions of the machinery which are liable to 
be deranged. The carder should frequently examine all the 
fixtures, and the movements of the various machines under 
his charge, with the most minute and careful scrutiny, to see 
that nothing is out of order, or in such a condition as to make 
l rreguiar drawing or bad roving. Sometimes the stuff will be- 



140 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

come so heavy that it will not draw clear ; this must be par- 
ticularly watched. Drawing-frame or speeder top rollers should 
not be weighted heavier than is necessary to make them draw 
the sliver fair and clear ; if the weights are too heavy, they 
cause the roller to heat, and make the fibres of the cotton 
catch. Heavy weights soon wear out the leather and cloth, 
by pressing the top roller too hard upon the flutes, which 
stretch and finally cut the leather. 

REVOLVING OF CANS. 

The receiving cans at the calender-rollers of the last heads 
of drawing-frames should all have a slow rotary motion. The 
sliver being here fine and light, falls into the centre, or on 
one side of the can, until it accumulates in a little heap, which 
falls over in such a manner as usually to bring the upper part 
below ; this causes it to break when it is running up at the 
back of the speeders. The rotary motion of the cans causes 
the sliver to be deposited in regular, even layers, arid it runs 
out without any strain or trouble. It would be a great ad- 
vantage to have these rotary movements at the fronts of all 
the drawing-heads, as well as at all the cards. The pressing 
of the sliver into the can is now in many cases done by ma- 
chinery. A tin or iron tube hangs over the centre of the can, 
and when it is nearly full, presses the sliver down. This can 
only be done at the heads with coarse sliver, such as the draw- 
ing-heads on railroads, or a doubler, or the first head of the 
frame. The pulleys upon which the cans are placed, and on 
which they revolve, should be even with the floor of the fac- 
tory, as it saves a great amount of handling and lifting ; the 
cans may then be made larger, and are more durable, because 
they are exposed to less ill-usage. 



DRAWING AND ROVING. 141 

SIZES OP CANS AND ROVING-BOXES. 

Card-cans, 33 inches deep, by 11 inches in diameter. 
Drawing-frame cans, 36 inches deep, by 9 inches in diameter 
Speeder-cans, 33 inches deep, by 8 inches in diameter. 
Roving-boxes, 30 inches long by 10 inches wide in the clear, 
and 13 inches deep. 

This is a convenient size for a box to carry either full or 
empty bobbins in ; it will hold from sixty to seventy bobbins, 
made on the condensing-strap, or eclipse speeders. The cans 
mentioned above are of a convenient size, and generally have 
a tin hoop and ring around the mouth. A stout iron hoop, 
well tinned, is laid around the bottom, and a stout wire ring 
is soldered around the outside angle, formed by the junction 
of the sides and bottom. The heaviest plate tin should be 
used in the construction of cans. 

WASTE. 

The hands should be particular in keeping all their frames 
and rollers very nice and clean, and attending to the oiling of 
them at regular intervals. The front top roller should be 
oiled three or four times each day. As little waste as possible 
should be made ; this is, however, dependent in a great mea- 
sure upon circumstances beyond our control. If the frames 
are kept clean and in good order, with good rollers, good cans 
of the proper size, and the top rollers covered with varnish, 
to prevent them from lapping, there will be no occasion to 
make much waste. If, with the machinery in this condition, 
an undue proportion of waste is made, it must be owing to 
the neglect and carelessness of the hands, and for want of 
proper management. All the waste should be collected every 



142 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

evening with strict regularity, and mixed with the cotton in 
the picking-room on the following day. If too much waste 
is mixed with the cotton at one time, it makes the stuff light, 
weakens the yarn, and makes it spin badly ) it also causes the 
stuff to break down at the back of the frames and speeders, 
which has a direct tendency to increase the waste and the 
number of single strands, and cause a great loss of time. An 
average of from ten to twelve pounds of waste is sufficient to 
mix with 100 pounds of cotton at one time. The waste made 
is of less value than the unwrought cotton ; even that made 
at the drawing-frames, which is next in value to the card-front 
waste. The fibres of the waste have been deprived of their 
adhesive properties, and have no affinity for each other; it is 
almost impossible to work it by itself to any advantage. A 
very good plan for diminishing the amount of waste is, to 
limit the amount of waste which each person shall make, and 
allow none of the attendants at the drawing-frames to make 
more than from twelve to sixteen ounces per day, and at the 
speeders from eight to twelve ounces ; but this, in many in- 
stances, is of no avail, as roguish or cunning hands, rather 
than incur the risk of being reprimanded, will find means to 
secrete their waste, either by throwing it into the cans, having 
it conveyed slily into the picking-house, or disposing of it in 
some other manner. When the manager or carder is very 
strict as to the quantity of waste made, some careless hands 
will allow single strands or lumps to run up, without saying 
anything about it, in order to save appearances, thus making 
what was already bad much worse. Good, careful hands, 
naving a desire to give satisfaction by doing good work, will 
take time, and endeavour to work up their single strands at 
the back of the heads. If, however, they have many ends to 
mind, and the heads run rapidly, while they are engaged in 



DRAWING AND ROVING. 143 

untangling, splicing, and doubling at one head, everything 
will be going wrong on the other heads ; so that the remedy 
is actually worse than the evil. A head-carder who under- 
stands the duties of his situation, will adopt such rules and 
measures as are necessary under the circumstances, and best 
calculated to attain the object in view, the suppression of the 
extravagant formation of waste. The waste made upon mules 
and throstles, both the roving and soft waste, is less valuable 
than carding-room waste, and has a greater tendency to weaken 
the yarn than any other kind. The hands at those machines, 
therefore, should not be allowed to make any waste, by pull- 
ing roving off the bobbins, or in any other way. Evil-dis- 
posed persons have been known, when a plan has been adopted 
for lessening the amount of waste, to carry out quantities of 
it, and throw it in various places out of doors. When there 
is much waste made in a cotton factory, especially after the 
material has had a great deal of labour bestowed upon it, it 
constitutes a great drawback upon the profits of the establish- 
ment. It is certainly a matter of great importance to all per- 
sons interested, that the quantity of waste made in any de- 
partment of a factory should not exceed that which the na- 
ture of the operations requires. Many costly establishments 
have become losing concerns, instead of profitable enterprises, 
merely by the waste of valuable material, made through care- 
less or unskilful management. 



SWEEPING THE ROOMS. 

Make it a rule to have the floors kept clean and free from 
waste and cotton, as a great deal of both is apt to be trodden 
under foot in this way and destroyed. Every establishment 
making any pretensions to good management, should keep one 



144 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

or more careful women employed, whose duty it should be to 
pick up all the particles of waste and cotton, and keep the 
floors swept clean. In those factories which do not employ a 
woman for this purpose, the girls are necessitated to sweep at 
least three or four times each day around their frames and 
speeders; and, while their time and attention is taken up with 
sweeping, their machines are apt to be neglected, and the 
work to suffer by their absence. It is a mistaken notion, that 
money is saved by dispensing with the services of two women 
in a factory to keep it in good, clean order ; manufacturers 
are more likely to lose by such a system of false economy, as 
they must then take the hands from their frames for that pur- 
pose, from which they should not be spared a moment. In 
those factories in which the work is done on the hot-bed system 
of rapid driving, and turning off a large quantity of work 
from each machine, and where the amount of good waste and 
cotton trampled into the dirt is very great, the sweepings and 
dirty waste from the picking- room should be carried out of the 
factory every evening, and what is not worth keeping should 
be sold to the paper-makers, or to the manufacturers of coarse 
yarn for carpet filling. Let it be carefully packed away in 
bags, in a building separated from the factory, and let every 
bag be weighed when it is full, and the weight plainly marked 
upon it. By the adoption of this system, they will always 
be ready for sale or delivery at a moment's notice. 



SCOURING, BRUSHES, AND CLEARERS. 

The drawing-frames should all be well cleaned every Satur- 
day, by taking the heads apart, and cleaning and scouring the 
under rollers well with a piece of old sheet-card All the 
studs and journals should be carefully oiled whm put up 



DRAWING AND ROVING. 145 

again. The top clearers should be kept clean, and the cloth 
in good order. The under brushes should be cleaned out se- 
veral times in the course of a day, for they receive a consider- 
able amount of dirt, which, if allowed to accumulate, will run 
through with the sliver, and cause the formation of waste, as 
well as a loss of time in separating the waste from the sliver. 
The under brushes should not be set up against the rollers 
too tight or too hard, as it heats the rollers, and wears both 
the rollers and the brushos ; and, for the same reason, the 
staples of the brushes should not be too short or too stiff,— 
they may be about l£ or 1 J inches long. Brushes are pre- 
ferable for this purpose to cloth attached to triangular-shaped 
pieces of wood ; the spring of the bristles in the brush will 
clean motes and dirt out of the flutings, while the wood and 
cloth will force them in tighter; the cloth will also soon wear 
out. Cloth may do very well under slow-running card-head 
rollers, where brushes would be in the way, and under clearers, 
made of cloth, are kept up to the rollers by a gentle spring. 
The cloth should not be glued fast to the whole surface of the 
wood, but should have a space beneath it j the wood should 
be hollowed out in such a manner, that the cloth will only 
touch the two edges, and leave a space of one-fourth or three- 
eighths of an inch in the centre. Brushes for drawing-frame 
rollers do not generally extend to the back under rollers ; it 
would be very useful to extend them thus far, as these rollers 
often lap in consequence of dirt lodging in their flutes. 

Particular attention should be paid to keeping the speeders 
clean and carefully oiled, on account of the rapid speed at 
which they run. It is customary in well-regulated rooms to 
clean both the drawing-frames and speeders several times per 
clay ; and smart, active girls take pride in keeping these ma- 
chines in nice, handsome, clean order, without receiving a 
13 



146 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

hint from the foreman ; others require very broad hints on 
the subject. It is essentially necessary for the proper working 
of these machines, and, in fact, all other cotton machinery, 
that they be kept clean, and regularly oiled. These matters 
are of great importance in the management of cotton mills. 

The speeders might be taken apart, and their under rollers 
scoured, once every four weeks. The top rollers should be 
examined very frequently, particularly the front ones, as they 
are very liable to become untrue, and cut and spoil the roving. 
There should be a plentiful supply of spare rollers in every 
factory, ready covered, to be put into any machine in place of 
those which do not work well. 



VARNISH ON TOP ROLLERS. 

It is also necessary that some kind of varnish should be 
used on drawing-frame and speeder top rollers, to prevent them 
from lapping or licking up the cotton. Almost every carder 
has some favourite composition, which he thinks preferable to 
all others; but perhaps this is all right. Some use the 
whites of eggs and glue; others, simply glue, or glue and 
venetian-red : some use gum tragacanth, with venetian-red or 
gamboge, and others employ copal varnish mixed with color- 
ing matter, vinegar and black lead, and a great variety of 
other mixtures. As may be expected, all these compounds 
are more or less imperfect. As much benefit may be derived 
from a mixture of gum arabic and New England rum, in the 
proportion of about six or seven ounces of the former to a 
pint of the latter, as from any other mixture. The rollers 
must always be well cleaned with moist waste, and rubbed 
dry with a piece of muslin, before the varnish is applied ; on 
dirty rollers it will always crack and scale off. What mostly 



DRAWING AND ROVING. 147 

recommends this last varnish, is the ease with which it may 
be made, and the fact of a roller being fit for use in three or 
four minutes after it has been varnished. If properly made, 
and applied at a medium thickness, it will last a long time, 
and will answer the purpose as well as any other varnish. 
Where frames run very fast, and are heavily weighted, no 
varnish will last long, especially if the rollers become heated. 



DRAUGHT OF CALENDER-ROLLERS. 

It often happens in drawing-frames, that there is too much 
draught between the calender and fluted front rollers; this 
must be altered, for it has a very bad effect upon the stuff, 
and is the cause of more injury to the yarn, than managers 
and carders are aware of. It is a very easy matter to ascer- 
tain at any time whether the calender-rollers draw, by apply- 
ing the hand to the top calender-roller, and holding it back a 
little, so that the stuff may run sLck between the front and 
calender-rollers; if, upon removing the hand, it is found that 
the calender-rollers soon tighten up the stuff again, then they 
have too much draught, and must be altered. Sometimes it 
is caused by the want of oil on the front top roller, or by too 
light a weight; if it does not arise from either of these causes, 
there must be something wrong in the calculation of the 
wheels. If it is necessary to lay aside the gearing-wheels be- 
tween the front and calender-rollers, then substitute a small 
belc to run on the pinions of those rollers, instead of the pul- 
leys, first turning a little off the circumference of the wheel 
of the front roller, to lessen the draught between it and the 
calender-roller. This is preferable, in many cases, to the 
wheel-gearing, because it can be so regulated, that the draught 
may be altered with very little trouble, by turning a little off 



148 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

either wheel, or by applying a coarse file to them when run- 
ning. These wheels are very apt to catch the hands, fingers, 
or some part of the dress of the attendants. 



TO PROVE ROVING S BY GRAINS AND SCALES. 

Reel forty threads or a half cut in a careful manner on a 
correct reel, so as not to stretch the roving. Forty threads 
are the fourteenth part of one hank, or 560 threads ; and 
500 grains are the fourteenth part of one pound avoirdupois, 
or 7000 grains. Whatever number of grains the forty 
threads weigh, that number will form a divisor to the divi- 
dend 500, and the quotient will be the hank roving. 



Suppose 40 threads, or a half cut, weighs 250 grains, what 
hank roving is it? 

250)500(2 Ans. 2 hank roving. 
500 



Suppose 40 threads weigh 222 grains, what hank roving 
is it ? 

222)500(2.25 Ans. 2\ hank roving. 
444 



560 
444 



1160 
1110 



50 remainder. 



DRAWING AND ROVING. 14^ 

Suppose 40 threads weigh 200 grains, what hank roving 
is it? 

200)500(2.5 Ans. 2 f hank roving. 
400 



1000 
1000 



Suppose 40 threads weigh 166 grains, what hank roving 
is it? 

166)500(3 Ans. 3 hank roving. 
498 

2 remainder. 

TO TRY ROVINGS BY THE QUADRANT. 

Put forty threads or a half cut in a quadrant balance, and 
whatever they size, divided by 2, will give the number of 
cuts, and that product, divided by 7, will give the number of 
hanks ; the remainder will be so many cuts. 





EXAMPLES. 


Suppose 40 threads size 24 on the quadrant, what hank 
ving is it ? 

2)24 




7)12(1.71 Ans If hank, nearly. 




7 




50 
49 




10 

7 


13* 


3 remainder. 



150 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

Or thus, forty threads being the fourteenth part of one 
hank, or 560 threads, whatever number that sizes on the 
quadrant, divided by fourteen, will give the hank rovinc 



EXAMPLES. 

Suppose 40 threads size 24, what hank roving is it ? 

14)24(1.71 Ans. If hank, nearly. 
14 

100 
98 

20 
14 

6 remainder. 



Suppose 40 threads size 28 on the quadrant, what hank 
roving is that ? 

14)28(2 Ans. 2 hank roving. 
28 



Suppose forty threads size 32 J, what hank roving is it? 

14)31^(2.25 Ans. 2J hank roving. 
28 

35 

28 

70 
70 



DRAWING AND ROVING. 151 

If 40 threads size 35, what hank roving will they make? 

14)35(2 J Ans. 2J hank roving. 

28 



7)A(i 

Suppose 40 threads size 25 ; what hank roving will that 
make ? 

14)25(1.78 Ans. If hank roving. 
14 

110 

98 

120 
112 

8 remainder. 

Suppose 40 threads size 42, what hank roving will that 
make? 



14)42(3 Ans. 3 hank roving. 

42 



15: 



AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 



A TABLE, 

SHOWING THE SIZE OF ROVINGS, FROM A QUARTER HANK 

TO FIVE HANKS IN THE POUND, BY SCALES 

AND GRAINS, WITH FORTY THREADS, 

OR A HALF CUT. 



Threads, 

40 
a 

a 
it 
a 
tt 
tt 
tt 
a 
u 
tt 
tt 
tt 
u 
tt 
(' 
a 
a 
a 
tt 



Grains. Hank roving. 


Threads 




2000 ... 


• i 


40 ... 


1333 ... 


. f 


a 




1000 ... 


* 


tt 




800 ... 


• 1 


a 




666 ... 


■ t 


tt 




571 ... 


. i 


a 




500 ... 


1 


a 




444 ... 


14 


a 




400 ... 


H 


a 




363 ... 


If 


a 




333 ... 


. 1* 


a 




307 ... 


■ H 


it 




285 ... 


If 


a 




266 ... 


1* 


u 




250 ... 


2 


a 




235 ... 


24 


n 




222 


n 


tt 




210 .... 


2| 


tt 




198 .... 


2* 


a 




190 .... 


2| 




3ur grains i 


nake one 


pennyv 


reia 



Grains. 


Hank roving 


. ]81 


93 
. . . . Z-4 


. 171 


.... 2* 


. 166 


.... 3 


. 160 


.... H 


. 153 


.... 3J 


. 148 


.... 3| 


. 142 


.... 3£ 


. 137 


.... 3f 


. 133 


.... 3f 


. 129 


.... 31 


. 125 


.... 4 


. 120 


.... H 


. 117 


.... 4* 


. 114 


... 4| 


. Ill 


.... 4£ 


. 108 


...4| 


. 105 


... 4| 


. 102 


... H 


. 100 


... 5 



nyweights and five and a half grains make one ounce avoir- 
dupois; twenty pennyweights make one ounce, troy weight. 



DRAWING AND ROVING. 



153 



A TABLE, 

SHOWING THE SIZE OP ROVING BY THE YARN QUADRANT, 

FROM HALF HANK TO SIX HANK ROVING, BY 

FORTY THREADS, OR A HALF CUT. 



hreads. 


Size. Hank roving. 


Threads. 


Size. 


Hank roving. 


40 .. 


.. 7 ... 


£ 


40 


...49 


... 3* 


tt 


.. 10* ... 


t 


tt 


... 52* 


... 3f 


tt 


..14 ... 


1 


a 


...56 


... 4 


tt 


.. 17 J ... 


1* 


tt 


... 59* 


... 44 


a 


.. 21 ... 


1* 


it 


...63 


... 4* 


a 


.. 24* ... 


If 


u 


... 66* 


... 4| 


it 


..28 ... 


2 


a 


.... 70 


... 5 


a 


.. 81* ... 


n 


tt 


... 73* 


... 5J 


tt 


..35 .. 


n 


u 


...77 


...5* 


a 


.. 38 J ... 


2| 


a 


... 80* 


... 5| 


u 


..42 ... 


3 


u 


...84 


... 6 


u 


.. 45 J ... 


*f 









The two preceding tables will be found to be very useful 
to every manager and carder when trying their roving. 
Every carder should have a small pair of scales, accurately 
adjusted, and a set of weights, ranging from one grain up to 
2000 or 3000 grains, or to any number that may be wanted. 
The weights can be very readily manufactured out of sheei 
brass or sheet copper. 



154 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 



THROSTLES, 

The finishing machines in a cotton mill, which spin the 
cohesive yarn, are essentially of two kinds : the throstle, 01 
water-twist frame, by which the twisting and winding are per- 
formed simultaneously upon the roving as it progresses through 
it : and the mule, which draws out and stretches the threads, 
without giving them much twist, to the length of about five 
feet or more, when it gives the full twist to the thread, and 
winds the finished yarn immediately upon the spindles in the 
form of coils. 

The throstle is called a water-twist frame, and the yarn 
spun on it, water-twist yarn, because it accidentally happened 
that the first machines of this description were driven by 
water-power. A vast amount of ingenuity and skill is dis- 
played in the mechanical arrangements of the various parts 
of a throstle which are necessary**; o produce the variety of 
forms which the material assumes in its passage through it ; 
the whole tending to improve the quality of the product. As 
far as the motions and structure are concerned, however, 
there is no essential difference in these machines, but there is 
a difference in the form of the spindles, which regulates the 
quality of the machines. 

LIVE SPINDLES. 

The live spindle, as it is called, is the oldest form of spindle, 
and is still a favourite with many cotton-spinners, on account 
of the superior quality of yarn which it produces; but it runs 
very slowly, when compared with other spindles, and from 



THROSTLES. 155 

that cause it is gradually going out of use. If this spindle 
performs 3600 or 4000 revolutions per minute, it may bo 
considered as very good work, and a fair average of its speed. 

DEAD SPINDLES. 

The dead spindle is an essential modification of the live 
spindle, and is better adapted for the attainment of a great 
speed. It is objectionable, however, on account of the poor 
quality of the yarn which it produces ; as many cotton-spin- 
ners assert that it does not make such good yarn as the live 
spindle. 

RING SPINDLE. 

The ring spindle, or ring frame of Alfred Jenks', appears 
to have superseded both of the above mentioned spindles, and 
to be rapidly gaining the favour of those engaged in the ma- 
nufacture of cotton. This spindle has no fly, and is simply 
a steel cylinder, upon which the bobbin moves ; a small steel 
ring, called a traveller, which is nearly one-fourth of an inch 
in diameter, and having an open cut in it, is the means by 
which the thread is wound. This ring revolves around the 
bobbin, and is held in its place by an iron ring, which fits in 
the open groove. The iron ring is fastened upon the travers- 
ing rail, and is sufficiently large to allow the head of the 
bobbin, as well as the traveller, to pass through without 
touohing. This spindle has many and great advantages over 
every other description of spindles; it may be driven at a 
speed of 8000 revolutions per minute, with perfect security, 
when making coarse yarn, and when operating upon the finer 
numbers 10,000 revolutions per minute is not an cxtraordi 



156 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

nary speed to be attained. "When used in manufacturing 
warp, it gives it a strong wiry twist; the same machine may 
"be used for filling, with but a trifling amount of alteration. 

The little steel rings, or travellers, run at such a tremen- 
dous speed, that they are liable to wear out in a short time; 
they do not usually last much longer than three or four 
weeks, and must then he replaced hy new ones. As these 
rings cost but little, then wear does not furnish a well-founded 
objection to this spindle. Throstles, with such spindles, are 
now made to work without bobbins ; a thin tube, made of 
sheet-iron, fitting closely upon the spindle, is substituted for 
the wooden bobbin. This tube is filled with the yarn in the 
same manner as the barrels of the speeders, that is, the coil 
is wound so as to taper to both ends. When wooden tubes 
or bobbins are used, they should have but one head, so that 
they may be used either in making warp, or for the shuttle. 
If the cops are intended for use in the shuttle, the traversing 
motion should be regulated accordingly; they may then be 
filled in the same manner as a shuttle cop. 

Annexed, will be found the dimensions of the different 
parts of throstles, to run with live spindles, as well as those 
of other patterns ; also directions as to the proper manage- 
ment of these machines, a careful attention to which is an 
important matter in every orderly and well-regulated cotton 
mill. 



THROSTLES. 



157 



DIMENSIONS OF A LIVE-SPINDLE THROSTLE. 



Ft. In. 



Diameter of driving-pulley on main 








lying shaft 


2 1 . 




82 


Driving counter-shaft by pulley of . 


1 3 . 




136 


Driving pulley on counter-shaft .... 


2 1 . 




136 


Pulleys on throstle cylinder 


71 • 




456 


Diameter of throstle cylinder 


8J . 




456 


Diameter of warve of spindle 


i • 




4429 


Diameter of pulley on the other end 








cylinder, driving fly 


71 . 




. 456 


Driving fly-wheel of 


1 6 . 




196 


Change-twist pinion on fly-axle .... 




. 26 . 


. 196 


Intermediate carrier wheels, one on 








each side 


1 \ • 


. 124 . 




Wheel on front roller 




. 78 . 
. 20 . 


. 65 


Draught-pinion on front roller .... 




Driving carrier-stud of 




. 74 . 




Change-pinion attached to carrier- 




stud 




. 30 . 




"Working into middle roller 




. 68 . 




On the other end of middle roller . . 




. 20 . 




Intermediate carrier 




. 54 . 
. 21 . 




Pinion on end of back roller 




Diameter of front rollers 


1 . 






Diameter of back and middle rollers, 




Distance from centre to centre of 








front and middle rollers 


ItV 






Length of the longest staple of upland 








cotton 


1 3 






Length of under rollers from centre 








to centre of stands 


1 51 . 







14 



158 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

Ft. In. 

Length of spindle 1 5 

Length of spindle above the collar 5| 

Length ot bearing on collar . . . . \\ 

Distance of warve from under side of collar : 1^ 



Thickness of spindle collar T 5 g 

Thickness of spindle where the bobbin runs, fully. . . \ 

Thickness of spindle from collar to step, nearly .... T 9 F 

Extreme length of bobbin 2§ 

Length of bobbin barrel in the clear 2 

Width of the face of the pulleys 3 

Width of the face of the large pulleys on the counter- 
shaft 7 

Extreme length of throstle of 132 spindles 17 8 

Extreme width of throstle 3 6 

Width of passage for hands from one step-rail to the 

other 3 4 



SPEED OF SPINDLES, AND PRODUCT OF THROSTLE. 

Sixty-eight revolutions of the spindle to one of the front 
roller, is a rapid speed for live-spindle throstles, when spin- 
ning No. 23 or 24 yarn. This is nearly twenty-three turns 
of the spindle to each inch of yarn. It may be considered 
good twist, or throstle chain, for this number. 

With this speed, the throstles will yield 4.85 hanks per 
spindle, in twelve running hours, if nothing wrong occurs. 
Ends being down, as well as stoppages, will reduce this yield 
to about 4.50 hanks in twelve hours. If the front roller runs 
at a speed of about 60 revolutions per minute, it will make 
about 4} hanks to the spindle every twelve hours. 



THROSTLES. 



159 



CAP-SPINDLE THROSTLE. 

Ft. In. 

Diameter of driving-pulley on main ho- 
rizontal shaft 2 6 

Driving counter-shaft by pulley of . . . 11 

Driving pulley on counter-shaft 2 6 

Driving throstle cylinder by pulley of, 6 
Pulley on the other end of the cylinder, 

driving fly-wheel 4 

Diameter of fly-wheel 1 6 

Twist or change-pinion on fly-axle . . . 

Driving front roller by wheel of 

Diameter of cylinder 6 

Diameter of spindle warve 1 

Pinion on front roller 

Stud carrier 

Change-pinion attached thereto 

Driving back roller by pinion of 

Pinion on other end of back roller . . . 

Pinion on middle roller 

Diameter of front roller 1 

Diameter of back and middle rollers . . & 



Teeth. 









. 100 




. 272 




. 272 




. 1193 




. 1193 




. 265 


30 


. 265 


78 


. 101 




. 1193 




. 7158 


20 


, . 


80 


. 


34 


. . 


68 




23 


, . 


21 


•• 







DRAUGHT OF THESE THROSTLES. 

The draught of throstles is frequently 1 into 9.96; this, 
with 1\ hank roving, would make the yarn No. 24. If the 
preparation of the material would admit of it, it would be 
better to use 3 hank roving, and have less draught. With a 
draught of 1 into 8, better work could be done if 3 hank 
rwing were used. 



160 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 



DRAUGHT CALCULATION. 



Drivers. 

34 

20 

680 

7= 


Driven. 

80 
68 

640 
= diam. back roller. 480 


4760 


5440 

8 = diam. of front roller. 




4760)43520(9.14 
42840 




6800 
4760 




20400 
19040 




360 remainder. 



Draught= 9.14 
If the machine works 2 \ hank roving. 




22.85 
Ans. No. 23, nearly, by the draught calculation. 

At this speed, these throstles will average about 7\ hanks 
*.o the spindle in twelve hours, if no accidents occur, and the 
ends are kept up ; but it is necessary to stop them twelve or 
fifteen minutes each day, in order to clean off the flyings from 



REMARKS ON THROSTLES. 161 

the spindles and caps, and oil the metal tubes that form a 
part of the warve, and which run on the fast spindle at its 
great speed of 7158 revolutions per minute. These calcula- 
tions show nearly 71 revolutions of the spindle to one of the 
front roller, or 22.61 twists to the inch of yarn No. 23 and 
24, or so many hanks to the pound. 

These throstles generally contain 120 spindles, and are 
better calculated for spinning filling than twist, as the drag 
on the thread is very slight, and there are no means of in- 
creasing it or regulating it, as on the spindle and the flier. 
Ends may be spun on this spindle until the bobbin becomes 
full, and the yarn has not received half the twist that it 
should have, owing to slack bands. These machines do not 
suit well for twist, such as No. 20 to No. 26. 



REMARKS ON THROSTLES. 

THROSTLE SPINDLES. 

There are a great variety of throstles, but the difference 
consists chiefly in the spindles. Reasoning from experience, 
we may say that there are no spindles superior to the live 
spindle and flier, provided it is well made and kept in good 
order. We have particular allusion to the making of strong, 
wiry yarn for chain, and the coarser kinds of goods, say from 
No. 10 to 30. It would lead us too far to state all the ob- 
jections which may be made against the various kinds of 
spindles ; but one objection, and a principal one, is, that on 
most of the new spindles, there is but little drag on the 
thread, which is essentially necessary for making good, clean 
thread. 

14* 



162 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 



BREWSTER S SPINDLES. 



There is no possible way of increasing or diminishing the 
draught by washers, by lapping the end around the arms of 
the flier, or, as the hands term it, by tempering the bobbin, 
except it be on the Brewster throstle. This, as well as the 
awkward manner in which the ends have to be mended, the 
throstle being stopped, and the full bobbins doffed, is a great 
drawback upon the spindles. Six and a half or seven hank3 
to the spindle, is a great product, but the machinery will not 
long bear such rapid driving ; it may do for a short time, but 
will eventually lead to bad results. There is also a great deal 
of trouble with the bands in consequence of rapid driving, 
as they create a great deal of waste ; the yarn being inferior 
as twist. If the spindles are driven by a long band, which 
is slackened or tightened by a sliding pulley and weight, they 
require a great amount of power. 

VARIOUS SPINDLES. 

The short bands, or one band to each spindle, do not 
answer very well on any other description of throstle but the 
cap spindle. The warve traverses on the spindle about four 
inches, or the length of the bobbin, and, as it approaches or 
recedes from the centre of the cylinder, the bands slacken or 
tighten, and cause inequalities in the twist. If the long band 
is used, it makes the ■ throstle very heavy, and, if this band 
happens to break, which it very often does, it laps around the 
cylinders, and creates a great deal of trouble and loss of time 
in putting on a new band. These spindles suit better for 
spinning filling than twist, as it would not then be necessary 
to drive the rollers at the same speed, say 101 revolutions ; 



REMARKS ON THROSTLES. 163 

and the spindles would not then require to be driven at a 
greater speed than 4260 revolutions per minute to make No. 
22 filling, or 4841 for No. 25, instead of more than 7000 re- 
volutions, which are required for the same numbers of twist. 

TRAVERSE MOTION. 

Particular care must be taken of all the parts of the tra- 
verse motion ; the rails and levers on the traverse-shaft must 
be placed perfectly square with it, and parallel with each 
other, and should all range exactly with the lever which bears 
on the heart. The stud which bears on the heart-wheel must 
be fastened in such a manner, that the levers will not traverse 
over too long or too short a space, but lay the yarn on the 
barrels of the bobbins evenly from bottom to top. There is 
a slit in the lever, in which the heart-stud is inserted ; if this 
stud is moved back, a little nearer to the lever-shaft or centre, 
it will cause the levers to traverse over a greater space, and 
by bringing it out a little nearer to the point of the lever, it 
will shorten the traverse motion of the lever. The different 
sections of the bobbin-rail can be adjusted and regulated by 
the screws on the lower part of each of the upright lifters, 
which reach from the points of the levers to the bobbins. 
These screws must be set in such a manner as to prevent 
the yarn from running over either the bottom or the top of 
the bobbins, as this is productive of a great deal of waste, 
which is a dead loss. Bobbins which do not receive the yarn 
in a proper manner, owing to the spindles being sunk in the 
step, or the arms of the flier being too short or too long, must 
be regulated by placing cloth washers under the bobbins if 
the yarn inclines to the top ; if the inclination is towards the 
bottom, take one or two of the washers off. When the spindle- 



1(54 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

step is placed in the step-rail, and fastened by a pinch or set 
screw, the spindle may be raised and lowered a little according 
to circumstances. Both the steps and the collars should be 
fastened in this manner by steel set screws. The brasses of 
the collars and steps should fit very exactly into the holes of 
the collar and step-rails, otherwise the set screw will give them 
an inclination to one side, and throw the spindle out of a per- 
pendicular position. Great care should be taken not to ob- 
struct the traverse motion in any way ; it should move freely 
in all the slides, which, as well as the other portions, must be 
kept in a clean condition and well oiled. If any thing ad- 
heres to the traverse lever, or obstructs its motion, the yarn 
will form a lump or ridge on the bobbin, which will continue 
until the obstruction is removed. Attention should be paid 
to the set screws, which fasten the levers on the long shaft, 
for 5 if any of them slip, which they frequently do, the levers 
get out of range, and wind the yarn in an irregular manner. 
The proper position of the levers is of so much importance, 
that they should be fastened both with keys and screws. 

REGULATING THE DRAG OF THE BOBBIN. 

The common live spindles should be cleaned at least once 
every week ; the other kinds will need cleaning much oftener. 
The part on which the bobbin runs should be kept free from 
waste and dirt, as this would prevent the bobbin from drawing 
freely ; the bobbin would revolve too fast, causing the thread 
to gather in knots by being too slack. Good bands should be 
kept upon the spindles ; they must neither be too slack nor 
too tight, as they have a bad effect in either case. If a band 
is too slack, the yarn does not receive the proper amount of 
twisting; and if it is too tight, it causes the spindle to jump 



REMARKS ON THROSTLES. 165 

and vibrate. Waste, dirt, and bad knots, or many of them 
upon the barrels, will produce the same effect. Strips of cloth, 
with holes cut in them to suit the spindles, may be put along 
the bobbin-rail, under the bobbins, and cloth washers, about 
the size of, or a little larger than the bottoms of the bobbins, 
may also be put on to make them build level, and to regulate 
the drag. When the washers wear glazy or smooth, they do 
not produce the necessary friction on the bobbins to make 
them draw properly, and must be changed. When they pro- 
duce too much friction, the attendants should temper the drag 
by lapping the ends once or twice around the arms of the 
flier. Leather washers are sometimes used under the bobbins 
to increase the friction, particularly when coarse, strong yarn, 
ranging from No. 7 to 12, is being spun. When filling or 
fine yarn is being spun, small washers, made of paper or cloth, 
with a small hole in them, are used to lessen the drag. The 
cap throstle may be more advantageously used for the last 
mentioned yarns than any other spindle, and several spinners 
use the throstle filling frame ) still, the mule is the best ma- 
chine to use for this purpose. If, in spinning chain, there is 
not a sufficient drag on the throstle-bobbin to keep the thread 
at a proper degree of tension, the yarn will become knotty, 
and of course is spoiled, as this renders it quite brittle and 
weak. It is not good to lap the end too often around the arms 
of the flier; for this, wide-bore bobbins, bad washers, and too 
much twist, all have a tendency to the production of knotty 
yarn. Particular attention should be given to the thread- 
wires, or that part on which the thread bears, to have it set 
fairly above the centre of the spindle ; if it is not, it has a 
bad effect upon the spinning. 



166 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

CLEANING AND OILING. 

The roller-leathers and journal must be kept clean and free 
from waste ; have the leathers of the rollers brushed off fre- 
quently with a brush similar to a shoe-brush. The attendants 
should be very careful that no dirt or waste cotton catches on 
the yarn, as this is particularly injurious to twist; and they 
should use every endeavour to make good, fair spinning. The 
spindle-steps and collars should be oiled every morning, and 
the collars again at noon. The cylinder journals should be 
oiled every morning and noon ; top front rollers and studs 
every morning ; the under front rollers every other day ; the 
middle and back rollers, and top and under rollers every Mon- 
day morning; and the journals of all the gearing-shafts in 
the room every morning. The throstles should be taken down, 
and well cleaned and scoured, and the roller couplings oiled, 
whenever they require it. If they are kept clean, and in 
good order, once in every eight weeks will be sufficient ; in 
some factories they clean one every day, or every other day, 
so as to make the circuit of the whole of them in four, six, 
or eight weeks. This is an excellent plan ; for when only 
one machine is taken down at one time, the superintendent 
has an opportunity of examining every part of it minutely, 
which he cannot do when they are all taken apart at the same 
time. Although it is customary to wait for some stoppage, 
arising from accidental causes, such as back-water, or some- 
thing of the same nature, to clean and scour all the machines 
at the same time, it is, nevertheless, a very bad practice, and 
one which should be abolished. 

SPINDLES. 

Work should not be done with broken fliers on the spin- 
dles, as they cause the spindle to vibrate so much that it pre* 



REMARKS ON THROSTLES. 167 

vents the end from spinning well, or taking up on the bobbin ; 
besides, they wear the collar or bearing of the spindle so as 
to make it untrue, and also wear out the brass collar in which 
the spindle runs. It is very necessary to the proper working 
of the machine, that the fliers should be of an equal length, 
and the arms of a uniform weight ; they should be very ac- 
curately balanced, to insure that steady, smooth motion of the 
spindle, which is so important in spinning. Strict attention 
should be paid to the state of the top rollers ; examine them 
frequently, to be certain that they are working properly, and 
are not cutting or spoiling the yarn. The roving guides should 
always be made to traverse about five-eighths of an inch be- 
hind the roller, in order to wear the surface of the top rollers 
equally, otherwise they will be worn into gutters by the hard 
places in the roving, so that it will be impossible for them to 
make even and fair yarn. 

DRAUGHT. 

When twist is being spun on throstles, it is advisable not 
to have a draught greater than 1 into 8 for No. 24. Nos. 25, 
26, 27, and 28, may be spun from the same roving; for No. 
28, the draught should be 1 into 9£. A greater draught than 
this would prove injurious to these numbers. 

WASTE. 

The hands who attend to the throstles should keep their 
threads and hard ends separate from the soft and roving waste, 
which should be collected regularly every morning, and car- 
ried to the picking-room, there to be mixed with the cotton 
used for filling. Waste and bobbins should be kept off th<3 



168 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

floor, and should not be allowed to lay about the reels, or be* 
hind the rollers. 

It is necessary to have a smart, active boy, to oil the ma- 
chinery, tie ends, lift waste, and do other work. The reelers 
and spoolers should leave their empty bobbins free from waste 
and yarn ; dirty bobbins give a great deal of trouble to the 
spinner, by the ends catching on the fliers. Spinners should 
never break or tangle ends upon the bobbins. 



BOBBIN-BOARDS. 

The best way of preserving bobbins, both full and empty, 
from injury and abuse, is to have a supply of bobbin-boards, 
containing as many wire pins as will be sufficient to hold bob- 
bins for one side of a throstle running 60 or 66 spindles; the 
pins must be so arranged as to admit a full set of bobbins, 
without their being too much crowded. The cost of the 
boards is soon realized from the saving effected by it in the 
yarn and the bobbins. 

POWER REQUIRED EOR THROSTLES. 

Yarn can never be spun upon throstles of as fine a quality 
as that made upon mules, and therefore they are seldom used 
for yarn finer than No. 32. Throstle twist is usually used 
for the warp of heavy goods, such as fustians, stout sheetings, 
shirtings, and checks. They require considerably more power 
than mules; and a throstle of 120 spindles will require more 
motive power than a mule containing twice the number of 
spindles, supposing both to be spinning the same kind of 
yarn. Where steam or water-power is expensive, this will 
make a considerable difference in the cost of production. 



MULE-SPINNING. 169 

BOBBINS. 

As good yarn-bobbins are very necessary to the proper 
working of throstles, they should be made of good, hard, 
well-seasoned wood ; dog-wood is the best that can be used 
for this purpose; and they should be turned very true. The 
bottom part of the bobbins intended for live spindles should 
be made of a convex form, having a rise of three-sixteenths of 
an inch from the circumference to the centre ; they drag more 
regularly, and do better spinning, when constructed in this 



MULE-SPINNING. 

MULES. 

The principle upon which mule-spinning depends, has been 
stated in the previous chapter. It derives its name from the 
circumstance of its being a combination of the old spinning- 
jenny and the water-frame. Mules generally contain from 
180 to 200 spindles, and upwards. One portion of the ma- 
chine is stationary, and contains the drawing-rollers and the 
rovings; the other part is movable, and has the spindles 
mounted upon it. The first is generally called the rollei- 
beam, and the latter the carriage; the roller-beam contains 
the principal portion of the machinery, and the carriage just 
a sufficient quantity to furnish the spindles with the requisite 
motive power. 

The spinning operations of the mule are very ingenious, 
and involve a perfectly correct principle in the formation 
15 



170 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

of a uniform thread. On its passage from the first fluted 
roller, the thinner portions of the roving are gently twisted by 
the spindle, and when the carriage is withdrawn from the 
roller the thick places in the roving receive less twist than the 
thinner portions. The thick places are therefore liable to be 
stretched, while the thinner, being twisted harder, will not 
stretch at all. After the carriage has been drawn nearly to 
its proper distance, the rollers stop, and the speed of the spin- 
dle is generally increased ; in the mean time the carriage is 
drawn a few inches farther out, which equalizes the yarn still 
more, and prevents the formation of knots. 

The winding wires are an important part of the mule, and 
the sagacity of a spinner is observable in the order in which 
he keeps his winding wires. The upper wire, or faller, leads 
the thread, and forms the cap ; the lower, or counter-faller, 
stiffens the thread, and assists the operations of the first. This 
winding or copping wire may be moved by the hand of the 
spinner; but at present it is usually moved by machinery. 
In the latter case the cops are better than those made by 
the most experienced spinners. 

Where the mules are partially driven by either steam or 
water-power, one person generally attends two mules, which 
stand opposite to each other. These machines are going out 
of use very fast, and are replaced by self-acting mules, which 
perform all the complicated motions of the mule with great 
precision. Among the self-acting mules, we may mention 
those made by Mason & Co., of Taunton, Mass., as very per- 
fect machines. Self-acting mules require only children to 
attend them ; piecing, supplying the machine with roving, 
and removing the full cops, is the whole amount of the labour 
to be performed. 

The quantity of yarn spun by a mule depends partly on the 



MULE-SPINNING. 



171 



number of spindles in use, the number of the yarn spun, and 
the quality of the cotton spun, and the machinery that is used. 
A greater quantity of coarse yarn can be spun than of Jane, 
and more of filling than warp ; a good machine will also pro* 
duce more yarn than a bad one. While three stretches per 
minute can be made on filling, but two and a half can be made 
on warp, two stretches on No. 100, and only one in spinning 
No. 300. Bad spindles, and machinery but imperfectly 
made, will never yield well, and it would be more profitable 
to throw such machinery aside, and erect better in its place. 
A temperature of 65° is found to be the most advantageous 
in a mule-room ; at a lower heat the mules will not work well, 
and a greater heat is injurious to the yarn. 

Self-acting mules are of great advantage where the same 
description of raw material is uniformly used, and nearly the 
same number of yarn spun ; where either of these is changed 
frequently, the self-acting mules are not so profitable, and the 
hand-mule has the preference. There are at present, probably 
more than 1,000,000 spindles in operation upon self-acting 
mules, throughout the United States. 



DIMENSIONS OP MULES FOR TWIST. 



Ft. In. 

Diameter of driving-pulley on main ho- 
rizontal shaft 1 10 

Diameter of pulley on mule axle .... 1 

Diameter of fly-wheel 3 

Diameter of rim-band pulley 1 8 

Diameter of drum-band pulley 1 2 

Diameter of groove on the drum where 
the band runs 10 



Rer. 

100 

183J 

183 

329 

329 

460 



172 



AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 



ft. Til 

Diameter of drum where spindle runs, 10 

Diameter of spindle warve 1 

Face-wheel bevel on fly-axle 

Bevel on top of long shaft 

Bevel on bottom of long shaft 

Bevel on front roller 

Pinion on front roller 

Driving carrier-stud of 

Change-pinion attached thereto 

Driving back roller by wheel of 

Pinion on other end of back roller . . . 

Diameter of middle roller 

Diameter of front roller 1 

Diameter of back roller £■ 



D'l 

42 
28 

70 
20 
7-4 
32 
68 
24 

90 



He*. 

460 

4606 

183 

226 

226 
90 



DRAUGHT AND TWIST. 

The draught of this mnle is about 1 into 9. With the 
roving at 2.45 hanks to the pound. No. 22 twist yarn can be 
spmij and the twists are abont eighteen turns to the inch. 
This is rather too little twist, the yarn wonld be improved by 
giving it twenty or twenty-one turns to the inch. Another 
defect in these mules is, there is no stretch on the yarn after 
the gearing on the rollers has been dropped. 



HEAD TWIST. 

It is the stretching operation, performed by the carriage 
receding a few inches from the rollers after they stop, and the 
spindles continuing to run, which gives to the yarn what is 
called head twist. This adds to the fineness and regularity 
of mule twist. If this operation is dispensed with, and the 



MULE-SPINNING. 



173 



yarn receives all the twist while the rollers are running, and 
no stretch is given to the yarn, the article produced will be 
inferior to that made on mules where the stretching head-twist 
is given. It is true, there is some little time lost at each 
draw or stretch, by giving about eighteen turns of the fly, or 
450 of the spindle ; but if all the twist is given when the 
carriage is coming out, the spindles must be driven at a speed 
which will injure both the machinery and the yarn. If the 
proper twist is given after the yarn has been stretched, the 
superior quality of the yarn, and the diminished wear of the 
spindles and collar brasses, which is the result of a lower rate 
of speed, will amply compensate for the very little time re- 
quired in putting sixteen or twenty times the amount of head 
twist on the mule. 



DIMENSIONS OF A FILLING MULE. 



Ft. In. 

Face wheel on fly axle 

Bevel on top of long shaft 

Bevel on bottom of long shaft 

Bevel on front roller 

Diameter of fly-wheel 3 

Diameter of rim-band pulley 1 8 

Diameter of drum band or twist pulley 1 2 

Diameter of warve of spindle 1 

Length of spindle , . 1 4J 



Teeth. 

52 

33 

80 
70 



183 

250£ 
250£ 
107 
183 
329 
329 
4606 



DRAUGHT AND TWIST OF FILLING MULE. 

The draught of filling mules is the same in all respects as 
in the twist mules, that is, a little more than 1 into 9, and 
the yarn is then about No. 22. The turns are 13.71, or 
15* 



L74 



AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 



nearly fourteen twists to the inch. This is rather softer than 
filling is generally made ; the best is given fourteen or fifteen 
turns to the inch ; though this depends in a great measure on 
fche kind of goods the filling is to be used for. 



GREATEST SPEED OF A MULE. 

Ft. In. 

Upright shaft performs per minute ... 

Crown wheel, containing 

Pinion on horizontal shaft 

Wheel on horizontal shaft, driving the 
counter-shaft 

Pinion on counter-shaft 

Diameter of driving-pulley on counter- 
shaft 1 9f . 

"Diameter of pulley on fly-wheel axle. 1 l£ . 

Face or breast-wheel on fly-wheel axle, 

Bevel on top of tumbling shaft 

Bevel on bottom of tumbling shaft ... 

Bevel on front roller 



Teeth. 


Rev. 


. . . 


26 


. 75 .. 


26 


. 25 .. 


78 


. 36 .. 


78 


. 26 .. 


108 




108 


• . . 


174 


. 60 .. 


178 


. 40 .. 


261 


. 31 .. 


261 


. 96 .. 


84J 



SPEED OF ANOTHER MULE. 

Ft. In. Rev. 

Diameter of pulley on cross-geared shaft ....16.. 78 

Driving counter-shaft by pulley of 1 . . 117 

Driving pulley on counter-shaft 1 6 . . 117 

Diameter of pulley on mule axle 1 . . 175 £ 

The bevel gearing on this mule is the same as on the one 
described above. The front roller makes nearly eighty-five 
revolutions per minute. 



OBSERVATIONS ON MULE-SPINNING. 175 



GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON MULE-SPINNING. 

Mule-spinning is by far the most perfect spinning pro- 
cess; and the one by which the most perfect yarn is produced. 
The mule completes the series of spinning-machines now in 
use, and is the only important discovery which has been made 
in the art of spinning since the invention of the rollers, and 
also of the other machines employed in the different prepara- 
tory processes. Some idea may perhaps be formed of the 
perfection to which the mule has attained, when it is stated, 
that a pound of cotton has been spun on the mule into 350 
hanks, each hank measuring 840 yards, and forming together 
a thread 167 miles long. 

CORRECTING A MULE WHEN IN DISORDER. 

We have put down the various speeds at which different 
parts of both twist and filling mules may be driven, and we 
shall now proceed to give some instructions as to the regula- 
tion of a mule. When the roller-beam, carriage, spindle-box, 
and faller, or builder, are out of order, or when, in fact, the 
whole machine is in disorder, place the roller-beam straight 
by the aid of a line, and level it perfectly by a spirit-level. 
With a gauge, set the surface of the carriage railways at the 
same distance exactly from the under side of the front under 
roller — it having been first duly levelled. When that is done, 
take a true spirit-level, or carpenter's long level and plumb- 
bob, and by it set all the railways level and parallel. The 
rails may be set a half or three-fourths of an inch higher in 
front than at the back, or near the rollers. This will enable 
the spinner on a large mule to put up the carriage more easily. 



176 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

but care must be taken not to raise the rails so high as to 
prevent the carriage from coming out in a regular manner. 
After this, proceed in setting the ends of the spindle-box 
bottoms, at the same distance from the ends of the carriage- 
board. Run a line along the bottom of the spindle-box, and 
fasten this line about a fourth of an inch from each end ; the 
best mode of doing this is, by driving a small nail at each end 
of the spindle-box, and lapping the line around them. Pull 
the carriage square by the squaring bands, so that the line 
will be clear in the middle as well as at both ends. Set the 
bottom of the spindle-box straight, and put in the bevel in- 
tended for the spindles at each end ; then run a line along the 
top of the spindles, and set them perfectly straight. 



THE FALLER. 

The faller may now be set in such a manner, that when 
the building-wire is parallel with the tops of the spindles, it 
will be about three-eighths of an inch distant from them j it 
should be set perfectly level and straight. When the faller 
is put down, that is, when the axis is turned round by the 
hand so that the wire descends to the bottom, it will be equi- 
distant from the spindles a half or three- eighths of an inch. 
The firmness of the cop depends very much upon setting the 
faller fingers and wire properly. If the wire is not straight, 
and does not run tolerably near to both the top and bottom 
of the spindle, the spinner cannot make a fair, well-finished 
cop ; the top and bottom will be soft, kinked, and ragged. 
Such things must be avoided, as any of these faults will pre- 
vent the yarn from running off as it should, and will cause 
waste to be made at the reels, spooling-machines, or looms. 
Set the back stops, for stopping the carriage when it is run 



OBSERVATIONS ON MULE-SPINNING. I / j 

up as close as possible to the roller-beam, in their propej 
places, which may be from 2 J to 3 inches from the top of tbo 
spindle to the bite of the two front rollers. 

INCLINATION OP THE SPINDLE. 

The bevel of the spindles may be from 3 to 4 inches, when 
tried by a spindle bevel ; that is, the spindles should stand 
so much out of the perpendicular, that their tops will have an 
inclination of 3 or 3 J inches towards the rollers. When 
spinning twist, there should be less bevel in the spindles than 
for filling, and the ends must stand more upright, or else 
the threads will fly off the tops of the spindles, and catch on 
each other. If the spindles are intended to run steady, they 
should not be more than 6 \ or 6f inches above the collar 
brasses. The spindles should be stout and heavy below the 
collars, and be made of good steel. The collars should not 
be less than five-eighths of an inch wide. 

CLEANING THE MACHINE. 

Keep good top rollers in the mules, and good bands on the 
spindles. Keep the warves clean, and free from dirt. The 
rollers and spindles should be clean and regularly oiled. In 
using roving without twist, there should not be a difference of 
more than one or two teeth between the middle and back rol- 
lers. The rollers should be taken down every four weeks, 
well scoured and cleaned, and well oiled when put up again. 
Keep the skewers, creel steps, and all the moving parts, very 
clean and in good order. Make as little waste as possible, 
and have all the soft and roving waste taken away every 
evening. Clean the beam and carriage every two hours, and 



178 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

keep the floor clear of waste, as also the roving wires. When 
spinning twist, the steps of the spindles should be oiled twice 
each day, the spindle collars three or four times, and the front 
rollers once or twice in the same time. 



TO REGULATE THE SPEED OF A CARRIAGE. 

When starting a new mule, it is necessary to regulate tha 
speed of the carriage in proportion to that of the front rollers. 
This may be done in the following manner. Let one person 
run a piece of tape about three-eighths of an inch wide be- 
tween the two front rollers, putting the carriage up as close 
as it will go. Another should then take hold of the other 
end of the tape, while the first guides it through the rollers. 
The mule being then put in motion, the person holding the 
front end of the tape should keep it to the point of a spindle, 
and be very careful not to pull the tape in the least. When 
the carriage has run out the full distance, the space between 
the end of the tape and the top of the spindle may be mea- 
sured, to ascertain how much the tape falls short of reaching 
the spindle, and this distance will be the number of inches 
which the carriage has gained upon the rollers. If the tape 
reaches beyond the spindle, then the rollers gain upon the 
carriage. 

When spinning twist, the carriage should, in order to make 
good yarn, gain several inches in coming out;- but in putting 
in the head twist, the carriage should go in towards the roller- 
beam a little, the twisting of the thread causing it to shorten. 
In spinning filling, there must be a little draught and stretch 
between the carriage and the rollers. 



OBSERVATIONS ON MULE-SPINNING, 179 



DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MULE AND THROSTLE TWIST. 

Mule twist is used for weaving muslin and the finest kinds 
of cotton goods. The essential difference between this and 
Water-twist is, that the mule produces much finer articles than 
can possibly be made upon throstles, at the same time that they 
make a softer thread. As it requires much less power to run 
the same number of mule spindles than of throstles, the ma- 
nufacturer spins every kind of yarn which he can upon the 
mule ; but it will produce only the soft kinds of thread. It 
will spin all numbers, from the lowest up to 300 hanks to the 
pound. 

When getting mules made, have the stud-carrier and change- 
pinion placed up at the mule-head, instead of having them at 
the other end. The play of the roller-couplings will always 
cause the rollers to cut ; this is more commonly the case with 
a large mule than with a small one, — but any mule will cut 
every draw that is started, if not geared as directed. 



SIZE OF SHUTTLE COPS. 

Diameter of shuttle cops t ly'g inches. 

Length of shuttle cops 5 J " 

Eleven cops laid close together, measure across, 12 " 

Shuttle cops should be provided with short tin tubes, with 
a rim to catch below the cop. This tube is but one inch long, 
and fits close to the spindle and the spindle collar, and may 
be taken with the cop to the looms or to the reels. The lower 
end of the cop is in this way prevented from unwinding and 
making waste. 



180 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

BANDING. 

Mule Rim Banding. — Three strands, each 450 ends of 
No. 21 or 22 chain; 1350 ends in all. 

Drum Banding. — Three strands, 850 ends each, 1050 
ends in all, of No. 21 or 22 chain. 

Mule Spindle Banding. — Forty threads of No. 25 filling. 
It is also made of thirty threads of No. 21 or 22 filling. 

Throstle Banding. — Three strands, forty threads each, 
120 threads in all, of No. 21 or 22 yarn. 

Many mule spinners prefer banding made in single strands 
to that made of two or three strands. They say that it lasts 
longer, and is easier on the spindles and at the knot. They 
assert that three strand banding always strands off the warve, 
and gives more trouble than the single strand banding. 

TO FIND THE DRAUGHT OP ANY SPINNING MACHINE. 

The draught of spinning-machines may be tried by the 
plan previously laid down in this book for testing the draught 
of drawing-frames ; but, in most cases, it is necessary to cal- 
culate the draught by figures. For this reason, we furnish 
some examples of such calculations, in addition to those which 
have already been furnished. 

RULE. 

Write down the number of teeth in all the driving-wheels, 
or pinions, and multiply them together. Then write down 
the number of teeth in all the wheels that are driven, and 
multiply them together in like manner. If there is any dif- 
ference in the diameter of the rollers, multiply the least, or 



OBSERVATIONS ON MULE-SPINNING. 181 

drivers' product, by the diameter of the back roller, which is 
also a driver ; and the largest product, or that of the driven 
wheels, by the diameter of the front roller, which is also 
driven. Divide the sum of the driven wheels by that of the 
drivers,, and the quotient will be the draught of the machine. 

EXAMPLE OF A DEAWING-FEAME. 
Drivers. Driven. 

20 64 

18 30 



160 1920 

20 8 



360 2520)15360(6 Jo draught of frame, nearly. 

7 15120 

2520 240 remainder = T S (j nearly. 



TO FIND THE DRAUGHT OF A MULE. 

Suppose the driving-pinion on the front roller is 20; stud- 
carrier, 74; change-pinion attached to the carrier, 32; this 
drives the back roller by a wheel of 68. The diameter of the 
front roller is one inch, and that of the back roller seven- 
eighths of an inch. 

RULE. 

Multiply the change-pinion, 32, by the front roller pinion, 
20, and that product by 7 — the diameter of the back roller 
being seven-eighths of an inch. Multiply the number of 
teeth in the stud-carrier, 74, by the number m the roller- 
wheel, 68, and that product by 8, the diameter of the front 
roller, which is eight-eighths of an inch. Divide the greater 
number by the lesser, and the quotient will be the draught 
of the mule. 
16 



182 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 







EXAMPLE. 


Drivers. 




Driven. 


32 




74 


20 




68 


640 




592 


7 = 


= diam. 


back roller. 444 



4480 5032 

8=diam. of front roller. 



4480)40256(9 Ans. 
40320 



The draught is nearly 1 into 9. 

METHOD OF FINDING THE TWISTS PER INCH. 

The following is an easy method of finding the number 
of turns or twists in an inch of yarn spun on a mule, without 
taking the trouble to calculate by the wheels and pulleys. 
Put the carriage close up, then give the rim about half a turn 
by hand, to bring all the couplings and pulleys to the starting 
point ; mark the under roller at the corner of a front roller 
stand, and then stick a pin in a cop on a spindle, opposite to 
the marked front roller j now turn the rim by hand until the 
roller comes round exactly to the same place, at the same 
time counting the revolutions of the spindle very carefully, 
to ascertain how many it makes to the one revolution of the 
roller : the latter, divided by 3, will give the number of turns 
or twists to the inch, provided the front roller is one inch in 
diameter. For No. 20 and 21 yarn filling, the spindles should 
make 41 or 42 turns, for every revolution of an inch front 
roller; for No. 25 filling, 50 or 52 turns. For No. 21 or 22 
:<vist, the spindles should make 54 to 56 turns; for No. 25 



OBSERVATIONS ON MULE-SPINNING. 183 

twist, 60 or 64 turns of the spindles, without calculating 
the head twist. This is less twist than is put in throstle* 
twist ; but it is always made softer on mules. This is an 
easy method of finding the twists, and is nearly correct. If 
the twist is found to be too much or too little, it may be regu- 
lated by the size of the pulley or the bevel. 

TO FIND HOW MANY REVOLUTIONS THE SPINDLE MAKES 

TO ONE OF THE FLY; AND HOW OFTEN THE 

SPINDLE REVOLVES PER MINUTE. 

RULE. 

If the warves are 1 inch in diameter, multiply the diameter 
of the fly by the diameter of the drum or groove in the twist- 
pulley, and divide the product by the diameter of the fly, or 
rim-band groove. 

Suppose the diameter of the fly-wheel, or rim, to be 86 
inches ; the rim-band groove in the rim-band pulley, 20 inches; 
drum-band groove, 14 inches ; the drum grooves, 10 inches ; 
and that of the drum to be 10 inches : how many revolutions 
will the spindle make to one of the fly ? 

EXAMPLE. 
Inches. 

Diam. of fly-wheel or rim= 36 
Twist or drum-band pulley = 14 

144 

36 



Diam. of rim -band pul. 20)504(25 j revolutions of spindle 
40 to one of fly-wheel. 

104 
100 



184 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

The spindle revolves 25]- times to the one revolution of 
the fly; this, multiplied by the revolutions of the fly per 
minute, will give the revolutions of the spindle per minute. 

Revolutions of the fly= 183 per minute. 
Revolutions of the spindle = 25 1 for one of the fly. 

915 

366 
_36f 

The spindle makes 4611§ revolutions per minute 

TO FIND THE NUMBER OF TWISTS PER INCH IN THE YARN, 
RULE. 

Multiply the number of revolutions of the front roller by 
its circumference, and divide the number of revolutions of the 
ppindle per minute, by that product. 

EXAMPLE. 

90 revolutions of front roller per miu. 
3i inches, circumference of roller. 

270 
13 

Rev. of spin. 

Inches per minute, 283)4611(16.29 twists to 1 inch 

283 



1781 

1698 



830 
566 

2640 
2547 



93 remainder. 



OBSERVATIONS ON MULE-SPINNING. 185 

These 16 twists are suitable for yarn No. 22. In No. 22 
filling, the twists are 13.71 to the inch, which is about right,, 

TO FIND THE NECESSARY TWIST IN AN INCH OF YARN. 

The following rule for finding the proper number of twists 
per inch, by the square root, has been adopted by many spin- 
ners, and they assert that it is the most correct method. 

RULE. 

For throstle warp-yarn, No. 21, allow 21 twists to the inch, 
and for mule filling, No. 21, 13 or 14 turns to the inch. By 
taking the above for the data, or fixed numbers, we may find 
the twists per inch in any other No. of yarn. The twist in 
different numbers of yarn, is as the squares of the twists to 
the Nos. of the yarn. 

EXAMPLES. 

How many twists per inch are required in No. 25 chain, 
if there are 21 twists in No. 21 chain ? 

No. Twists. No. 

21 : 21 : : 25 : Ans. 
21 

21 
42 

441 

25 



2205 

882 



21)11025(525 v/"525(23 twists to the in, 

105 4 nearly. 

52 4.3)125 

42 129 



105 
16* 105 



186 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

How many twists are required in No. 30 filling, if No. *U 
requires 14 twists ? 

No. Twists. No. 

21 : 14 : : 30 : Ana, 
14 

56 
14 

196" 
30 



21)5880(280 
42 

168 
168 



\/280 = 16, and a fraction. 

No. 30 filling will, therefore, require a little more than 16 
twists to the inch. 



There is another short and simple rule, which meets with 
the approbation of some managers, for finding the number of 
twists per inch, which any given size or number may require. 



RULE. 

Multiply the square root of the given number by 4|, if for 
chain; but, if for filling, by 3 J; the result of either will be 
the number of twists per inch which the given size of yarn 
requires. 



OBSERVATIONS ON MULE-SPINNING. IS" 

EXAMPLES. 

To find the twist for No. 25 filling. 
V25^=5 

_!i 

15 

16£ turns per inch. 
No. 25 filling therefore requires 16 1 twists per inch. 

To find the twist for No. 25 chain. 
v725~=5 

_ii 

20 

22 1 turns per inch. 
No. 25 twist therefore requires 22$ twists to the inch. 



188 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

TO FIND THE SPEED, OR THE NUMBER OF REVOLUTIONS 
PER MINUTE, OF ANY MACHINE, CYLIN- 
DER, OR SHAFT. 

RULE. 

Multiply the diameters of the driving-pulleys together, and 
that product by the speed of the first pulley, or the number 
of revolutions which the main shaft makes per minute. 
Multiply the diameters of the driven pulleys together, and 
divide the product of the driving, by that of the driven pul- 
leys : the quotient will be the number of revolutions per 
minute. 

Suppose a main shaft, with 22 inch pulleys, makes 100 re- 
volutions per minute, and drives a mule-fly, or any other 
machine, by pulleys 12 inches in diameter, what will be the 
speed of the machine per minute ? 

EXAMPLE. 

Speed of main shaffc= 100 revolutions. 

Driving-pulley = 22 inches in diameter. 

Diani. of sm. pulley = 12)2200 

183 J = revolutions of mule-fly. 

THE SAME RULE, APPLIED TO THE COUNTER-SHAFT. 

Suppose the main shaft performs 78 revolutions per mi- 
nute, with an 18 inch pulley, and drives the counter-shaft by 
a pulley 12 inches in diameter, the driving-pulley on the 
counter-shaft being 18 inches, and the pulley on the fly-axle 
of the mule, 12 inches in diameter, what number of revolu- 
tions will the fly make per minute ? 



OBSERVATIONS ON MULE-SPINNING. 189 

EXAMPLE. 
Drivers. Driven. 

78 rev. Of Shaft. 12 diam. of driven pulley one. shaft. 

18 diam. Of pulley. 12 diam. of driven pulley on mule 

1404 144 

18 driving-pulley on counter-shaft. 



11232 
1404 



144)25272(175 J revolutions of the fly-axle per minute. 
144 



1087 
1008 



792 
720* 

72) T ^(| 

TO PROVE YARN BY SCALES AND GRAINS. 
RULE. 

Seven thousand grains being one pound avoirdupois, 1000 
grains are, of course, the one-seventh of a pound. One cut 
being the one-seventh of a hank, 1000 will therefore be the 
dividend, and 50 grains, the weight of one cut, will be the 
divisor. The quotient will be the size or number of the yarn. 

EXAMPLES. 

Suppose one cut, or 80 threads, weighs 50 grains, what is 
the number of yarn required ? 

Grains. 

5,0)100,0 



20 
Ans. No. 20, or twenty hanks to the pound. 



190 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

Suppose one cut weighs 40 grains, what is the number re- 
quired ? 

Grains. 

4,0)100,0 



25 Ans. No. 25 yarn. 

Trying but one cut would not give a proper and fair trial ; 
because it might happen that this cut would be taken from a 
fine or a coarse cop. Therefore, reel seven cuts, or one hank, 
from seven different cops. The number of grains they weigh 
will be the divisor to the dividend, 7000, or the number of 
grains in one pound. 

Suppose one hank, or seven cuts, weighs 280 grains, what 
number is the yarn ? 

Grains. 

280)7000(25 Ans. No. 25 yarn, w 
560 



1400 
1400 



Suppose one hank weighs 350 grains, what is the required 
number of the yarn ? 

Grains. 

350)7000(20 Ans. No. 20 yarn. 
700 



Suppose one hank weighs 304 grains, what will be the 
number of the yarn ? 

Grains. 

304)7000(23 Ans. No. 23 yarn, 
608 and a little over. 

920 
912 

8 remainder. 



OBSERVATIONS ON MULE-SPINNING. 



191 



A TABLE, 

BHOWING THE SIZE OF YARN, FROM NO. 8 UP TO NO. 33, 

BY SCALES AND GRAINS, CALCULATED BY 

ONE HANK, OR SEVEN CUTS. 



Hanks 
1 
tt 

it 
it 

a 
tt 
u 
a 
tt 
tt 
a 
it 
tt 



Grains. 

875 . 

777 . 

700 . 

636 . 

583 . 

538 . 

500 . 

467 . 
437 

412 . 

389 . 

368 . 

350 . 



No. of Yarn. 

.. 8 


Hanks. 
1 




.. 9 


tt 




.. 10 


it 




.. 11 


it 




.. 12 


it 




.. 13 


it 




.. 14 


it 




.. 15 


a 




.. 16 


a 




.. 17 


a 




.. 18 


a 




.. 19 


tt 




.. 20 


a 





Grains. 


No. of Yarn. 


333 . 


.. 21 


318 . 


.. 22 


304 . 


.. 23 


292 . 


.. 24 


280 . 


.. 25 


269 . 


.. 26 


259 . 


.. 27 


250 . 


.. 28 


242 


.. 29 


233 . 


...30 


226 . 


...31 


219 . 


.. 32 


212 . 


.. 33 



TO CALCULATE THE NUMBER OF YARN FROM THE NUMBER 
OF HANK ROVING. 

The draught of a mule or throstle, multiplied "by the num- 
bers of the hank roving, will give the size of the yarn spun 

Thus, suppose a mule has a draught of 9 to 1. 
The hank roving is, 2 J 

18 
4J 



No. of yarn to the pound, 22 £ hanks 



192 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 



A METHOD OF MAKING A SETT OF SMALL "WEIGHTS, FOR 



TRYING TARN BY HANK OR SKEIN 



The following directions will be found to be of much, ad- 
vantage, where there is no yarn quadrant or no grains. A 
small pair of correct scales will be necessary , 

The pound avoirdupois should be divided into 512 parts : 
16 ounces being one pound, each ounce will, therefore, repre- 
sent 32 of these parts ; a half ounce, 16 ; a quarter ounce, 
8 ; an eighth of an ounce, 4 ; a sixteenth of an ounce, 2 ; 
and the thirty-second part of an ounce, 1, or -yoth part of one 
pound. Yarn may be tried by this kind of weight. Grains 
are certainly much better, but it is sometimes impossible to 
procure them ; and, as any person who will take the neces- 
sary care, can make these home-made weights out of small 
pieces of sheet brass or tin, with the aid of small shot, and 
stamp each one with the number of parts which it represents, 
it is a great convenience, not to be dependent upon grains 
alone, for determining the weight of the yarn. In grains, 
the pound is divided into 7000 parts; but, in the home-made 
weights, it is divided into but 512 parts. The exact size of 
stuff and roving cannot, therefore, be determined ; but they 
answer very well for trying yarn by the skein. The foreman 
in every carding-room should have a fine pair of scales, and 
a complete sett of grains, by w 1 ich to try his roving and 
stuff. 



OBSERVATIONS ON MULE-SPINNING. 



193 



A TABLE, 

SHOWING THE SIZE OF YARN, FROM NO. 8 UP TO NO. 
HANKS IN THE POUND, BY A POUND AVOIRDU- 
POIS, DIVIDED INTO 512 PARTS. 



Hanks, 
1 

a 
a 
« 
tt 



34 



[auks. 
1 . 


Parts of 

l 

5 1 2 

... 64 .. 


Nos. of Yarn 

.. 8 


a 


... 57 .. 


.. 9 


it 


... 51 .. 


.. 10 


it 


... 46 .. 


.. 11 


a 


... 43 .. 


.. 12 


tt 


... 42 .. 


.. 12.20 


it 


... 41 .. 


.. 12.50 


a 


... 40 .. 


.. 12.75 


tt 


... 39 .. 


.. 13.12 


tt 


... 38 .. 


.. 13.50 


tt 


... 37 .. 


.. 13.87 


tt 


... 36 .. 


.. 14.75 


tt 


... 35 .. 


.. 14.82 


tt 


... 34 .. 


.. 15. 


tt 


... 33 .. 


.. 15.50 


tt 


... 32 .. 


.. 16. 


tt 


... 31 .. 


.. 16.50 



5 1 2 

.. 30 


Nos. of Yara 

.... 17. 


.. 29 


... 17.50 


.. 28 


... 18.28 


.. 27 


. ... 19. 


.. 26 


... 19.69 


.. 25 


... 20.50 


.. 24 


... 21.33 


.. 23 


... 22.33 


.. 22 


. ... 23.25 


.. 21 


. ... 24.33 


.. 20 


.... 25.40 


.. 19 


... 27. 


.. 18 


.... 28.50 


.. 17 


... 30.12 


.. 16 


.... 32. 


.. 15 


... 33. 


.. 14 


... 34. 



TO FIND THE CHANGE-PINION OF A MULE, AND TO SPIN 
ANY REQUIRED NUMBER FROM A GIVEN ROVING. 

RULE. 

Multiply the driven wheels, the diameter of the front roller, 
and the number of the hank roving, into each other, and the 
product will be the dividend. Take the proportionate gain 
of the carriage from the number to be spun ; the remainder, 
multiplied by the driving-pinion on the front roller, and that 
product by the diameter of the back roller, will be the divisor : 
the quotient will be the change-pinion required. 
17 



194 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 



If No. 25 is to be spun from a 2f hank roving, and the 
carriage is gaining 3 inches on the rollers, or, putting it up 
to 60 inches, it is gaining 1 in 20. The stud-carrier has 74, 
the back roller wheel 68, and the driving-pinion on the front 
roller, 20 teeth; the diameter of the back roller is seven- 
eighths of an inch, and that of the front roller, one inch. 
What change-pinion is required for the above number ? 

No. 

25 74 stud-carrier. 

H draught of carriage, 68 back roller wheel. 

23| 592 

2 teeth of wheel on front roller. 444 



460 5032 

15 8 front roller. 



475 40256 

7 diam.of back roller. 2f hank roving. 

3325 80512 

30192 



3325)110704(33.29 pinion. 
9975 



10954 
9975 



9790 
6650 

31400 
29925 

1475 



OBSERVATIONS ON MULE-SPINNINQ. 195 



TO EIND THE NUMBER OP TURNS PER STRETCH, 
AND TWISTS PER INCH. 



If a mule spindle makes 25J revolutions for 1 of the rim, 
and the rim makes 43 turns in a stretch, and the length put 
up is 60 inches, how many twists are there in 1 inch ? 



43 turns of the rim. 

25]- revolutions of the spindle. 



215 
86 
8.60 

Stretch, 60)1083.60(18.60 twists to the inch. 
60 

483 
480 



360 
360 



Ans. Nearly 18 f twists to the mch 



196 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 



TO FIND THE PINION FOR A GIVEN NUMBER. 



Suppose No. 22 yarn be spun with a pinion of 32 teeth, 
what will be the size of the pinion required to spin No. 25 
yarn? 

No. Pinions. No. 

22 : 32 : : 25 : Ans. 

22 

64 
64 



25)704(28.16 pinion. 
50 

204 
200 



40 

25 

150 
150 



Ans. A pinion of 28 teeth. 

A 28 toothed pinion will make the yarn too fine, and one 
&f 29 teeth will make it too coarse. 



OBSERVATIONS ON MULE-SPINNING. 197 



TO FIND THE HANK ROVING FOR A GIVEN NUMBER 
OF YARN. 



If No. 20 yarn requires 2| hank roving, what hank roving 
will No. 28 yarn require ? 

No. Hank roving. No. 

20 : 2.25 : : 28 : Ans. 
28 

1800 
450 



20)6300(3.15 hank roving. 
60 

30 
20 



Remainder oi work, 20)100 

100 
Ans. Nearly 3 J hank roving. 

17* 



198 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

TO FIND THE NUMBER OF HANKS IN A POUND OP YARN. 

EXAMPLE. 

Suppose a mule is so arranged, that the draught of the 
wheels is 8 ; the diameter of the back roller, £■ of an inch ; 
the diameter of the front roller, 1 inch ; that it spins from 
2i hank roving; the carriages drawing 20 into 21 : what will 
be the numbers of the yarn spun ? 



Draught by wheels, 8 
Diam. of front roller, 8 


i h d 


9,14 
2,50 hank roving. 


)iam. back roller, 7)64(9,14 1 
63 


r e £f ht 45700 
1828 


10 

7 


22,8500 

1 carriage drawe W 
^ x into 21. 


30 
28 


228500 
457000 


2 


20)4798500(23.9925 
40 

79 

60 

198 
180 




185 
180 




50 
40 

100 
100 



OBSERVATIONS ON MULE-SPINNING. 199 

10 CHANGE FROM ONE NUMBER TO ANOTHER, ON A MULE 

OR A THROSTLE, WHEN THE DRAUGHT AND 

ROVING HAVE BOTH TO BE ALTERED. 

Suppose No. 20 yarn is being spun with a 2 hank roving, 
and a change-pinion of 28 teeth, which it is necessary to alter, 
so that it will spin No. 28 yarn, with 2f hank roviDg : what 
sized change-pinion will be required ? 

RULE. 

Multiply the 28 change-pinion by the 2 hank roving, for a 
divisor; then multiply the No. 20 by the 2.75 hank roving, 
and that product by the 28 change pinion, for a dividend : 
the quotient will show the change-pinion required. 



No. No. 

28 20 

2 hank roviog. 2.75 hank roving. 

56 55.00 

28 change-pinion. 

44000 
11000 

56)154000(27.50 Ans. 27J or 28 

112 toothed pinion. 

420 
392 

280 
280 



200 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 



TO FIND THE NUMBER OF DRAWS OR STRETCHES ON A 
COP OF MULE TARN. 

Suppose a cop runs 8 cuts, with 80 turns of the reel to 
each cut, and 54 inches to each turn of the reel ; the length 
of the draw put up is 60 inches : what number of draws or 
stretches is required 1 

RULE. 

Multiply the 8 cuts by 80 threads in 1 cut, that product 
by 54 inches in 1 thread, and divide the sum of these multi- 
plications by 60 inches, the length of the stretch put up : the 
quotient will be the number of stretches on a sett of cops. 

EXAilPLE. 

80 threads, or one cut. 
8 cuts on each cop. 

640 
54 inches in each thread. 



2560 
8200 



Inches in a draw, 60)34560(576 stretches or draws in cop 
300 

456 
420 

360 
360 



OBSERVATIONS ON MULE-SPINNING. 201 



TO FIND THE AVERAGE NUMBERS OP A SETT OP COPS. 

Suppose a mule to have 312 spindles, and 1 cop runs 8 
cuts ; the weight of the whole sett being 14 pounds : what 
will be the average numbers of yarn in the cops ? 

RULE. 

Multiply 312, the number of spindles, by 8, the number 
of cuts, for the dividend ; then multiply 14, the weight of the 
sett of cops in pounds, by 7, the number of cuts in one hank, 
for a divisor : the quotient will be the average numbers of the 
yarn. 



Pound*. 

Weight of sett, 14 312 spindles. 

Cuts in a hank, 7 8 cuts. 

98 98)2496(25.46 

196 



536 

490 



460 
392 

680 

588 



92 remainder 



Ans. Nearly No. 25 J yarn 



202 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

TO CHANGE FROM ONE NUMBER TO ANOTHER, WITHOUT 
CHANGING THE ROVING. 

Suppose a mule is spinning No. 22 yarn, with a change- 
pinion of 34 teeth, and a change to No. 28 yarn becomes 
necessary, what sized change-pinion will be required ? 

RULE. 

As No. 28 yarn will require a smaller change-pinion than 
No. 22, the proportions are consequently inverse : 84, the 
number of teeth in the change-pinion, and 22, the number 
of the yarn, must be multiplied together for a dividend ; this 
product, divided by 28, the desired number of yarn, will give 
the change-pinion which is required. 









EXAMPLE. 










No. Pinion. No. 










22 : 34 : : 28 


: Ans. 








22 










68 










68 










28)748(26.71 


Ans. 








56 










188 










168 






200 










196 






40 










28 










12 




change 


-pinion 


of 27 teeth will be required. 



OBSERVATIONS ON MULE-SPINNING. 203 



TO EIND THE WORK DONE BY A MACHINE IN ONE WEEK. 

If a mule, containing 312 spindles, turns off 3f hanks pef 
day to each spindle, how many skeins will that be per week, 
and how many pounds of No. 24 yarn ? 

EXAMPLE. 

Skeins. 

312 sp L n S. n No. 24)7020(292 $ ,bs we N e ° k ; * yani pe ' 

Q *7F. hanks to each AQ 

°- < ° spindle. ^5 



1560 222 

2184 216 

936 ^ 

Skeins per day. 1170.00 48 

6 



7020 skeins per week. 
If wages are, 17 cents per 100 skeins. 

49140 
7020 



J2 

24J 



0« 



$11,93.40 spinners' wages. 

At this rate, each spinner will earn $11 93 cents per week, 
from which he has to pay $3 per week to a boy ; this leaves 
$8 93 cents as his nett weekly earnings. 



20-i AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 



WEAYING. 



The loom is the machine on which weaving is performed. 
The simplest form of a loom is the hand-loom, of which we 
have but little to say, because its use in this country is very 
limited. The power-loom, which is operated by machinery, 
without any human assistance, may be considered to be the 
only loom which excites any practical interest in our commu- 
nity. It has now arrived at such a state of perfection, that 
all the fabrics which our population requires may be readily 
manufactured by it ; plain weaving is done by it more per- 
fectly than it can be done on the hand-loom, and it can be so 
adjusted as to weave the heaviest goods to advantage; any 
number of shuttles — at least as many as six — may be used 
with ease ; and damask figured goods, such as table-cloths, &c. 
may be produced in great perfection, with the assistance of 
the Jacquard machine. 

Weaving is always preceded by warping; the object of 
which is, so to arrange all the longitudinal threads which are 
intended to form the chain or warp of the web, as to form, 
when spread out, a plane of parallel threads. In forming the 
warp, a sufficient number of bobbins, filled with yarn, must 
be taken, to furnish the number of threads of the required 
length of the piece of cloth intended to be woven. As the 
number of bobbins necessary for the formation of a large 
piece of fine cloth, would be unhandy to operate with, the 
warp is usually divided into six or eight parts, and as many 
bobbins are used to form one of the strands, as there are 
threads in such part. These strands are then united on the 
reel, and form the complete web. The spools of thread are 



WEAVING. 205 

mounted horizontally upon a square frame, and revolve upon 
wire skewers, so that the yarn may pass off them as freely as 
possible. 

There are two distinct forms of warping machines, one of 
which, the reeling machine, is used chiefly in the formation 
of chain for the hand-loom. This reel is of a vertical shape, 
from five to nine feet in diameter, seven feet high, and is 
moved by hand. The strands of thread are wound upon this 
reel in a screw line, and the winding is repeated six times, or 
oftener, or, in fact, until the required number of threads for 
the chain is laid upon it. The threads are run singly through 
a steel plate, called a heek, which forms the lease of the warp, 
and serves for the weaver to put his lease-rods in. 

In weaving formerly done on the power-loom, the dressing 
of the warp was a serious obstacle, and required a frequent 
stoppage of the loom, and unwinding of the beam. This dif- 
ficulty was overcome by the dressing-machine, which led to 
the invention of the warping-machine. On the latter, the 
warp is wound directly upon a beam ; six or eight, or even a 
greater number of these beams, are mounted upon the dress- 
ing-machine, and, on being unwound, form the warp. These 
machines are very simple and ingenious. Such a warp-mill, 
with its numerous threads and spools, would require much 
attention, and would work but slowly, if the motion of the 
machine was not checked by a very simple contrivance, in case 
one of the threads breaks. This object is attained by the 
drop-wires : a hook, made of iron wire, is hung upon each 
thread, or, rather, the thread passes through it; this hook has 
a long stem, which moves in the frame of the machine, and. 
as soon as the thread breaks, it drops down and arrests the 
motion of an iron rod, which then leads the strap upon the 
loose pulley. 
18 



206 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

Another important machine in the system of power-loom 
weaving, is the dressing-machine. This is a voluminous ma- 
chine, on which the warp-beams are placed; these are unwound 
slowly, and their contents united upon a single beam. During 
its transit to the single beam, the yarn passes over brushes, 
which move backwards and forwards, from which it receives a 
dressing, and is again dried before it reaches the main warp- 
beam. The drying is done by a current of heated air, which 
is forced upon the warp by a revolving fan, and, in passing 
through the moist threads of the warp, it dries them, and 
makes the warp fit for winding and weaving. The heated air 
is generated by the waste steam, and is conveyed in iron pipes 
under the machine. 

The power-loom is such a complicated, yet ingeniously con- 
structed machine, that it is beyond our power to furnish a 
proper description of it without the aid of diagrams : we do 
not, therefore, pretend to give any important information con- 
cerning it. Recent improvements on the power-loom have 
made it not only a useful, but an absolutely indispensable 
machine. Looms are now in operation, which are driven at 
the rate of 140 revolutions per minute, and some on plain 
goods reach 160. A. Jenks offers looms for sale, which will 
make 200 revolutions per minute. Common sheetings and 
shirtings require about seventy or eighty picks, or threads, 
to the inch, which would make, at 200 picks per minute, five 
yards of goods per hour. Coarse goods, such as pantaloon- 
stuffs, fustians, &c. can, of course, be woven much faster than 
this. There are looms manufactured now, which work six 
treadles with great perfection and ease, the machinery being 
very simple. As many shuttles can be worked on these looms 
as there are treadles, and with perfect security. The Jacquard 
machine is also applied with great success. 



WEAVING. 207 

It is the first business of the weaver in all cases, to adapt 
those parts of his loom which move the warp, to the forma- 
tion of the various kinds of ornamental figures which the 
cloth is intended to exhibit. This operation, called the draught, 
drawing or readying-in, is done by men who make a business 
of it, and follow no other occupation. In every kind of 
weaving, whether direct or cross-weaving, the whole difference 
of the pattern is produced, either by the order of succession 
tn which the warp is introduced into the heddles, or by the 
order of succession in which the heddles are moved. When 
the heddles have been thus far adjusted, it is the weaver's 
next business to connect the leaves, or heddles, with the 
levers, or treadles, by which they are moved, in such a manner 
as to form the desired pattern. When this operation is per- 
formed correctly, there is no further difficulty in obtaining 
the pattern wanted in the goods ; the only thing necessary is, 
to move the treadles in the order in which they have been 
placed. The motion of the treadles is performed with the 
greatest accuracy on one of Jenks' power-looms; they are 
moved by two revolving iron cylinders, placed in the lower 
part of the machine. These cylinders are furnished with 
holes along their whole length, and extending completely 
around them at regular distances, the number of which is in 
proportion to the square of the number of heddles used. Into 
these holes as many steel tappets are screwed as there are 
treadles ; six holes being allowed for each tappet, it follows 
that either heddle may be moved at each pick of the loom. 
This is certainly a perfect and safe piece of mechanism for 
moving the heddles,. and giving the draught to the loom. 

It is beyond our limits to furnish the operator with such 
instructions as to enable him to ready-in for a particular pat- 



208 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER, 

tern. This operation, in plain work, is too generally known 
to require description. The method of operation in ornamental 
weaving is, first to draw the pattern upon a paper, which has 
been previously laid out into small rectangular spaces, each 
line or space representing one thread of the warp as well as 
of the filling. The pattern thus drawn represents in its en- 
larged size, the figure as it will appear in the cloth, when re- 
duced to the size of the number of threads contained in it. 
The paper pattern thus forms a double scale, by which to 
judge of the effect, and to determine with great precision the 
readying-in, and all the subsequent operations. 

If great strength and thickness is to be given to the cloth, 
the common, plain weaving will not do it. For this purpose, 
two different modes of weaving are resorted to ; one of these 
makes double cloth, or weaves two webs and joins them to- 
gether in one operation, as is the case in carpets. The great 
strength and prominent advantages of twilled fabrics, has 
caused the second kind of heavy cloth to be manufactured on 
a very extensive scale. The difference of this mode of weav- 
ing consists chiefly in laying three or more threads upon the 
face of the cloth, with such intervals between as the pattern 
requires, instead of crossing each thread, as is done in plain 
weaving. In this manner a large amount of yarn may be 
compressed into a very small space. 



WEAVING. . 209 



TO FIND THE WEIGHT OF A WARP. 

Suppose a warp to be 450 yards long, and to contain 1700 
ends, and the number of the yarn to be 25 hanks to the 
pound, what is the weight of the warp ? 

RULE. 

Multiply 1700, the number of ends, or any other number 
that the warp contains, by 450, the number of yards ; the 
product will be the number of yards of all the ends contained 
in the warp. Divide this sum by 840, the number of yards 
in one hank, and that product again by 25 : the last quotient 
will be the answer required. 



Ends, 
Yards, 



£2 

, 1700 
3, 450 


CAMPLE. 

Hanks in 1 lb. 
0.71 hanks. 


Hanks in warp. 

25)910.71(36.7 
75 


85000 
6800 


160 
150 


0)765000(91' 
7560 


10 
16 


900 
840 


175 
175 


6000 

5880 




1200 
840 





360 

Ans, Weight of the warp nearly 36 lbs. 7 o%. 
18* 



210 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 



TO FIND THE NUMBERS OF A WARP. 

Suppose a warp of 450 yards in length contains 1700 ends, 
and weighs 36 lbs. 7 oz., what is the total number of hanks it 
contains, and what is the number of hanks to the pound ? 

RULE. 

Multiply 1700, the number of ends, by 450, the number 
of yards, and divide the product by 840, which will give the 
number of hanks in the whole warp; this product, divided 
by 86 lbs. 7 oz., the weight of the warp, will give the number 
of hanks in the pound. 

EXAMPLE. 

lbs. oz. Hanks in the warp. 

Ends, 1700 36 7 910.71 

Yards, 450 16 oz. 16 oz 

85000 583 oz. 546426 

6800 91071 



yds.inahauk. 840)765000(910.71 hanks. 583)1457136(24.99 
7560 1166 



900 2911 

840 2332 



6000 5793 

5880 5247 



1200 5466 

840 5247 

360 219 

Ans. 910 1 hanks in the warp, and nearly 25 hanks to a 
pound. 



WEAVING. 211 



REELING, AND SIZE OP A REEL. 

In reeling, Ij yards, or 54 inches, make 1 thread, 
80 threads make 1 cut, 
7 cuts, or 560 threads, make 1 hank, 
840 yards make 1 hank. 



TO FIND THE LENGTH OP A DRIVING-BELT. 

Suppose the distance from the centre of the driving-shaft 
to the centre of the pulley-axle, of any machine to be driven, 
is 10 feet, the diameter of the pulley on the driving-shaft is 
16 inches, and the diameter of the card-frame or mule pulley 
is 12 inches ; what length of belt will be required ? 

RULE. 

Double the distance, which is here 10 feet, and multiply 
the amount by 2 ; then add the diameter of the two pulleys 
together, and multiply the product by 3, or, more correctly, 
3J; this product, divided by 2, and added to the double of 
the distance between the shafts, will be the length of belt 
required. 

EXAMPLE. 
Ft. In. Feet. 

1 4 driving pulley. 10 from centre to centre of shafts. 

1 driven pulley. 2 

2 4 20 double. 
3 Add 3* 



2)7 23 J length of belt. 

3£ feet around the pulleys. 



212 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 



TO FIND THE LENGTH OF A CROSS-BELT FOR THE 
SAME PLACE. 

RULE. 

Proceed in the same manner as with the other, with this 
difference : add the diameters of the 2 pulleys together, and 
multiply the product by 3, and that product again by 2 \ 
divide the sum of these multiplications by 3 : this last pro- 
duct, added to 20, will give the .required length of the cross- 
belt. 





EXAMPLE. 


Ft. In. 


Feet. 


1 4 


10 


1 


2 


2 4 


20 


3 


4 8 



7 24 8 length of a cross-belt. 

2 



3)14 



4 8 
Ans. 24 feet 8 inches, length of the cross-belt. 



BELTING. 



213 



BELTING. 



The following table shows the required width of large belts 
to drive different numbers and kinds of spindles with looms 
— the columns marked "Mules," "Mules and Frames," and 
" Frames," show the number and kind of spindles to be 
driven; the column marked "No. Yarn," shows the number 
of yarn which the spindles are supposed to spin; and the 
column marked "Diameter," shows the diameter of the 
smaller drum. 



Eequired the width of a belt to drive 5000 frame spindles 
with looms, the number of the yarn being 35, and the diam- 
eter of the smallest drum being 6 feet. Find 5000 in the 
column marked "Frame Spindles;" opposite to this number 
in the table, and under 6 in the column marked " Diameter/' 
will be found 32 inches, or two belts 16 inches wide. 



No. 1. 



Frame Spindles. 

1000 .. 


No. Yarn. 

30 to 40 . 


2000 .. 


(( (( 


3000 .. 


11 << 


4000 .. 
5000 .. 
6000 .. 


11 CI 

(( (( 







Diameter. 






3 


4 


5 6 


7 


8 


. 13 . 


. 10 . 


; 8 .. 6} 


. 5J 


. 4| 


. 26 . 


. 20 . 


. 16 . . 13 


. 11 


. 9 


. 39 . 


. 30 . 


. 24 . . 19 


. 16 


. 14 


. 52 . 


. 40 . 


. 32 .. 26 


. 22 


. 18 


. 65 . 


. 50 . 


. 40 . . 32 


.. 27 


. 23 


. 78 . 


. 60 . 


. 48 . . 39 


,. 33 


. 28 



214 



AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 



No. 3. 













Diameter. 






Mule Spindles. 


No. 


Yarn. 


3 


4 


6 


7 


8 


1000 .. 


10 to 20 


...13 


.. 10 . 


. 8 .. 7 . 


. 6 


.. 5 


2000 .. 


<< 


it 


.. 27 


. 20 . 


. 16 .. 13 . 


. 11 


.. 10 


3000 .. 


a 


a 


.. 40 


. 30 . 


. 24 .. 20 . 


. 17 


.. 15 


4000 .. 


a 


it 


.. 54 


. 40 . 


. 32 .. 27 . 


. 23 


.. 20 


5000 .. 


a 


tt 


.. 67 


. 50 . 


. 40 .. 34 . 


. 28 


.. 25 


6000 .. 


M 


it 


.. 81 


. 61 . 


. 49 .. 40 . 


. 34 


.. 30 



EXAMPLE. 

Required the width of a belt to drive 2000 mule spindles 
with looms, the number of the yarn being 28, and the diam- 
eter of the smallest drum being 3 feet. Find 2000 in the 
column marked "Mule Spindles;" opposite to this number in 
the table, and under 3 in the column marked "Diameter," 
will be found 25 inches, or two belts 12 1 inches wide. 



No. 3. 



Mule Spindles. No. Yarn. 

1000 ... 20 to 30 

2000 

3000 

4000 

5000 

6000 



3 

. 12 
. 25 
. 38 
. 50 
. 63 
. 76 



4 

9* 

19 
28 
38 
47 
57 



Diameter. 
5 i 

15 



. 23 
. 30 
. 38 
. 45 



7 

5 

10 
16 
21 
26 



8 

14 
19 
23 



32 .. 28 



le Spindles. 


No. Yarn. 


3 


1000 .. 


30 to 40 . 


. . 11| . 


2000 ... 


" . 


. . 2Zi . 


3000 .. 


(< tt 


. . 35 . 


4000 .. 


a a 


. . 47 . 


5000 .. 


a tt 


. . 58 . 


6000 .., 


tt a 


. . 70 . 



No. 4. 



9 

17 
26 
35 
44 
52 



Diameter. 

5 6 

7 .. 5* 

14 . . 11 

21 .. 17 

28 . . 23 . . 19 

35 .. 29 ..24 

42 .. 35 ..29 



7 

4f 

9* 
14 



. 4J 
. 8| 
. 13 
. 17 
. 21 
. 26 



BELTING. 



215 



mo. 5. 



bpmdles, Mule 
and Frame. 

1000 .. 


No. Yarn. 

10 to 20 . 


3 

.. 15 . 


4 

. 12 . 


Diameter. 
5 6 

11 .. 8 .. 


7 


8 

6 


2000 .. 


« << 


.. 30 . 


. 24 . 


21 . . 15 . . 


13 .. 


111 


3000 .. 


a a 


.. 45 . 


. 36 . 


32 . . 23 . , 


20 .. 


17 


4000 .. 


«« et 


... 60 . 


. 48 . 


43 .. 30 .. 


26 .. 


23 


5000 .. 


a a 


.. 75 . 


. 60 . 


54 . . 38 . . 


33 .. 


29 


6000 .. 


a a 


.. 90 . 


. 72 . 


64 .. 45 .. 


40 .. 


35 


Spindles, Mule 
and Frame. 

1000 .. 


No. Yarn. 

20 to 30 . 


No. 
3 

.. 13 . 


6. 

4 

. 10 . 


Diameter. 
5 6 

8 . . 61 . 


7 

. 51 . 


8 

. 5 


2000 .. 


<< n 


. . 26 . 


. 20 . 


16 . . 13 . 


. 11 . 


. 10 


3000 .. 


a a 


.. 39 . 


.29 . 


24 ..20 . 


. 17 . 


. 15 


4000 .. 


a a 


.. 52 . 


. 39 . 


31 .. 26 


22 


. 20 


5000 .. 


a a 


.. 65 . 


. 49 . 


39 .. 33 . 


. 28 . 


. 25 


6000 .. 


a a 


.. 78 . 


. 58 . 


47 .. 39 . 


. 33 . 


. 30 


Spind? ss, Mule 
and Frame. 

1000 .. 


No. Yarn. 

30 to 40 


No. 
3 

...12 


7. 

t 

.. 9 


Diameter. 
5 6 

.. 7 .. 6 


7 

. 5 .. 


8 

41 


2000 .. 


<« (< 


...24 


.. 18 


. . 14 . . 12 . 


. 10 .. 


9 


3000 .. 


a a 


...36 


.. 27 


. . 21 . . 18 . 


. 15 .. 


13 


4000 .. 


a a 


...48 


.. 36 


. . 29 . . 24 . 


. 20 .. 


18 


5000 .. 


a a 


...60 


.. 45 


. 36 . . 30 . 


. 25 .. 


22 


6000 .. 


a a 


...72 


.. 54 


. . 43 . . 36 


. 31 .. 


27 


F.ame Spindles. 

1000 .. 


No. Yarn. 

10 to 20 . . 


No. 
3 

. 16 .. 


8. 
4 

12 .. 


Diameter. 
5 6 

10 .. 8 


7 

. 7 . 


8 

. 6 


2000 ... 


"■'.. 


. 32 .. 


24 .. 


19 .. 16 . 


. 14 . 


. 12 


3000 ... 


" " .. 


. 48 .. 


36 .. 


29 .. 24 . 


. 21 . 


. 18 


4000 ... 


a a 


. 65 .. 


48 .. 


39 .. 32 . 


, 27 . 


. 24 


5000 ... 


" "' ,. 


. 81 .. 


61 .. 


48 .. 40 


. 34 . 


. 30 


6000 .. 


" ,. 


. 97 .. 


73 .. 


58 .. 49 . 


. 41 . 


. 3G 



216 



AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 



No. 9. 



Frame Spindles. 


No. Yarn. 


3 


4 


.uiau 
5 


tier. 
6 


7 


8 


1000 .. 


20 to 30 . 


.. 14 . 


. 11 . 


. 8J . 


. 7 . 


. 6 . 


. 5 


2000 .. 


a tt 


.. 29 . 


. 21 . 


. 17 . 


. 14 . 


. 12 . 


. 11 


3000 .. 


tt tt 


. . 43 . 


. 32 . 


. 26 . 


. 21 . 


. 18 . 


. 16 


4000 .. 


tt tt _ 


. . 57 . 


. 43 . 


. 34 . 


. 29 . 


. 24 . 


. 21 


5000 .. 


tt tt 


. . 72 . 


. 54 . 


. 43 . 


. 36 . 


. 31 . 


. 27 


6000 .. 


tt a 


.. 86 . 


. 65 . 


. 52 . 


. 43 . 


. 37 . 


. 32 



The following tables show the required width of counter- 
belts to drive the counter-shafts, which drive the different 
machines represented in the following tables. 



Required the width of a counter-belt to drive a picker with 
two beaters, the diameter of the smallest pulley being 18 
inches. Find 2 in the column marked "Beaters;" opposite 
to this number in the table, and under 18 in the column 
marked " Diameter," will be found 7 inches, the width of the 
required belt. 

No. 10. 











PICKERS 
























Diameter 












Beaters. 


10 


12 


14 


16 18 




20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 


1 . 


6| . 


. 54 


• 4* 


. ii .. 3i 




3i . 


3 . 










2 .. 


13 . 


. 11 . 


. 9 . 


. 84 .. 71 




64 .. 


6 . 


. 54 . 


. 5 . 


.41. 


.4* 


3 .. 


18 . 


. 16 . 


. 13 . 


.12*.. 11 


.. 


3- 


9 . 


. 7i . 


. 71 . 


.7 . 


.64 



Required the width of a counter-belt to drive 6 cards, the 
diameter of the smallest pulley being 20 inches. Find 6 in 
the column marked "Cards;" opposite to this number in the 
table, and under 20 in the column marked "Diameter," will 
he found 8 inches. 



BELTING. 



217 



No. 11. 

THIRTY-INCH CARDS. 













Diameter. 








>ards 


10 12 


14 


16 


18 


20 22 


24 


26 


28 30 


2 


. . 5* . 4* . 


31 . 


3* . 


3 


. 2* . 


. 




. 


3 


.. 7* . 6* . 


, 5* • 


41 . 


4* 


.4.3*. 


3* . 


3 


. 


4 


.. 10* • 8* . 


7* . 


6| . 


6 


. 5i • 4* . 


4* . 


4* 


. 3! . 3* 


5 


..13 . 10* . 


9 . 


8 . 


7* 


. 6* . 6 . 


5* . 


5i 


. 4* . 4* 


6 


.. 15* . 13 . 


11 . 


9* . 


81 


.8.7. 


6* . 


6* 


. 5* . 5 


7 


.. 18* . 15* . 


, 12| . 


m . 


10 


.9.8*. 


71 . 


7* 


.6i .6 


8 


. . 20 .17*. 


14| . 


12| . 


11* 


. 10* . 9* . 


9 . 


8* 


. 7* .7 


9 


.. 23| . 19* . 


. 161- . 


14* • 


13i 


. 12 . 10* . 


10 . 


9 


. 8* . 7* 


10 


..26 . 21* . 


. 18 . 


16 . 


14* 


.13 .12 o 


11 . 


10* 


. 9* . 8* 



No. 12, 
DRAWING FRAMES, (THREE HEADS EACH). 
Diameter. 



Di awing. 
1 
2 
3 



12 



14 



16 



18 



20 



22 



21 



... 8.. 6* 
.. 12 .. 9* 



5 .. 4* .. 4 .. 3* .. 3* .. 3 
7* .. 6| .. 6 .. 5* .. 4* .. 4* 



4* 



No. 13. 



TWIST SPEEDERS. 











Diameter. 








fripeeder. 


10 


12 


14 


16 18 20 22 


24 


26 


28 30 


48 .. 


. 6* . 


. 5* , 


. 4* . 


3* . 3* . 3 . 


. 


. 


. 


72 .. 


9* , 


. 7* . 


. 6* . 


5* . 5* . 4* . 4* . 


4 . 


3* . 


3* . 3 


96 .. 


12* . 


. 10* . 


, 81 . 


7* . 6* . 6 . 5* . 


5* . 


4* . 


4* . 4* 


120 .. 


, 15* , 


. 13 . 


, 11* . 


9* . 8* . 7* • 7 . 


6* . 


6 . 


5* . 5 


144 .. 


, 18* . 


. 15* , 


, 13* . 


11* . 10* . 9 . 8* . 


7* . 


7* . 


6* . 6* 


168 .. 


21* , 


, 18* , 


. 15* . 


13* . 12 . 10* . 91 . 


9 . 


8* . 


7* . 6* 


192 .. 


, 24* , 


. 20* , 


. 17* . 


15* . 13* . 12 . 11* . 


10* . 


9* . 


8* . 8* 


216 .. 


, 29 . 


, 23* . 


, 19* . 


17 . 15* . 13* . 12* . 
EXAMPLE. 


11* . 


10* . 


10 . 9 



Required the width of a counter-belt to drive 1500 mule 

spindles, the diameter of the smallest pulley being 20 inches. 

Find 1500 in the column marked "Mules;" opposite to this 

number in the table, and under 20 in the column marked 

19 



218 



AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER 



"Diameter/' will be found 15 inches ; the required \fidthj 
(or two belts 7 and 8 inches wide). 



No. 14. 

MULE SPINDLES. 



Mules. 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 

600 . . 12* . 10* . 8*. 7*. 6*. 6 . 5* . 5 . 4*. 4* . 4 

900.. 18* . 15* . 12* . 11* . 9*. 9*. 8*. 7*. 6*'. 6* . 6 

1200 .. 24| . 20* . 17* . 14* . 13* . 12* . 10* . 10* . 9* . 8* . 8* 

1500 .. 30* . 25* . 21* . 18* . 16* . 15 . 13* . 12* . .11* . 10* . 10* 



No. 15. 

FRAMES, (LIVE AND DEAD) SPINDLES. 











Diameter. 






Frame. 10 


12 


14 


16 


18 20 22 


24 26 


28 30 


100 . . 8 


6* 


. 5* 


. 5 


. 4* . 4 . 3* 


3* . 3 


. 


200 . . 16* 


. 13* 


. 11* 


. 10* 


. 8* . 8* . 7* 


6* . 6* 


. 5* . 5* 


300 . . 24* 


19* 


. 17* 


. 15* 


. 13* . 12* . 10* 


9* . 9* 


. 8* . 7* 


400 . . 32* 


. 26| 


. 22* 


. 20* 


. 17* . 16* . 14* 


13* . 12* 


. 11* . 10| 


500 . . 40* 


. 331 


. 28* 


25* 


. 22* . 20* . 18* 


16* . 15* 


. 14 . 13* 



No. 16. 

DRESSERS, (THREE FANS TO EACH DRESSER). 







Diameter. 




Dressers. 10 12 


14 16 


18 20 22 


24 26 28 SO 


1 .. 7* . 5* 


. 5* . 4* 


. 3* . 3* . 3* 


. 3 . 


2 .. 14* . 11* 


. 10* . 8| 


. 7* . 7 . 6* 


. 5* . 5* . 5 .4* 


3 .. 21* . 17* 


. 15* . 12* 


. 11* . 10* . 9* 


. 8* . 8* . 7* . 6* 


4 . . 28* . 23* 


. 20* . 17* 


. 13* . 14* . 12* 
No, 17. 

LOOMS. 

Diameter. 


. 11* . 10* .10 .9* 


i ooms. 10 12 


14 16 


18 20 22 


24 26 28 30 


2 .. 5* . 4* . 


3* . 3* . 


3 . 


. 


4 .. 10* . 8* . 


7* . 6* . 


5* . 5* . 5* . 


4* . 4* . 4* . 3J 


6 .. 15* . 13* • 


11* . 9* . 


8* . 7* . 7* . 


6* . 6 . 5* . 5* 


8 . . 20* . 17* . 


14* . 12* . 


11* . 10* . 9* . 


8* . 8* . 7* • 7 


IC .. 26* . 21* . 


17* . 16* . 


14* . 13* . 11* . 


10* . 10* . 9* . 8* 



12 .. 31* . 26* . 22* . 19* . 17* . 15* . 14* . 13* . 12* . 11* . 10* 



MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS. 219 

MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS. 

SPOOLING MACHINES. 

The spooling machines in general use, both for throstle 
bobbin 3 and mule cops, are those with a cylinder, or series of 
drums, upon a horizontal shaft, running in the centre of a 
frame about 2 feet 10 inches wide. These machines are of 
various lengths, according to the number of ends or spools 
they contain. Those of 32 spools, or 16 spools to each side, 
are about 12 feet 6 inches long; and those of 48 spools, or 
24 to each side, are 16 feet 6 inches long. Cast-iron arches 
are raised in the centre of the frame, over the drums, which 
form the stands for the spools : each drum turns two spools ; 
one on each side. The drums which turn the spools are driven 
at a speed of from 200 to 220 revolutions per minute, wheia 
their diameter is 8 J inches : this speed will suit either bobbins 
or cops. The traverse motion on these machines must be 
properly regulated, and kept in good order. 

PRICES OE MACHINERY. 

S cts. % cts. 

Patent willey, or opening machine 70 00 to 7500 

Patent spreader 500 00 " 00 

Cards, thirty inches wide, (wooden doffers,) 220 00 " 250 '00 

Cards, thirty inches wide, (iron doffers,) . 250 00 " 260 00 
Card clothing, in best calf-skin, per square 

foot* 1 20 " 1 38 

* A discount of five per cent, for cash is allowed on these prices. 



220 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

n i 8 % cts. 8 eta 

Card clothing, m good, neat leather, per 

square foot* 1 10 to 115 

Hand-stripping cards, per dozen 3 00 " 5 00 

Drawing-frames, with steel front rollers, 

per head 65 00 " 70 00 

Condensing-strap speeder of twelve ends . 275 00 " 300 00 

Brewster speeder, double beam 250 00 " 275 00 

Mules, per spindle 2 00 " 2 25 

Card-grinding machine 75 00 " 100 00 

Slide-rest for turning up cards 50 00 " 60 00 

Live-spindle throstles, per spindle 5 00 " 6 00 

Cap-spindle throstle 6 00 " 6 50 

Spooling machines, 32 and 48 spools 96 00 " 130 00 

Warping mills, from 11 to 12 feet diam. . 45 00 " 50 00 
Mule spindles, made of spindle steel, with 

iron warves 20 " 25 

Throstle spindles, with steel fliers, per doz., 10 00 " J 1 00 

Cast-steel throstle fliers 2 75 " 3 00 

Comb-plate, per foot 40 " 50 

Narrow cotton looms, each 45 00 " 50 00 

Wide cotton looms, each 65 00 " 70 00 

Shuttles for cotton looms, each 45 u 50 

Pickers for cotton looms, per dozen 1 25 " 1 50 

Shuttle eyes, for cotton looms, per dozen, 12 " 50 

Throstle bobbins, per thousand 22 50 " 25 00 

Grlass creel steps, per thousand 6 00 " 8 00 

Roller-skins (sheep), per dozen 6 00 " 7 00 

Roller-skins (calf), per dozen 24 00 " 30 00 

Emery of various sizes, per pound 8 " 10 

Russia calf-skins, per dozen 13 00 " 24 00 



A discount of five 



per cent, for cash is allowed on these prices. 



MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS. 



221 



Grlue, per pound 

Card-plyers, for stretching sheets, each . . 

Belt leather, per pound 

Water-wheel or steam-engine governors . . 

Roller cloth, per yard 

Washer cloth, for throstles, per yard .... 

Iron washers, per hundred 

Patent wrenches, each 

Tack, and other hammers 



There is, owing to the difference in the quality, workman- 
ship, style, and finish of machinery, a considerable variation 
in the price. In the foregoing list, the prices are given for 
the best kind. 



S cts. 


$ cts. 


12 " 


15 


1 50 " 


2 50 


26 < 


f 28 


50 00 < 


110 00 


100 < 


' 1 10 


80 < 


' 100 


70 ' 


■ 2 00 


2 00 < 


f 3 00 


50 < 


' 87 



PRICES OF MACHINERY MADE BY ALFRED JENKS. 

We insert here the prices of the various descriptions of 
cotton-spinning and weaving machinery, manufactured in 
Bridesburg, near Philadelphia, by Alfred Jenks, as they con- 
tain all the most recent improvements, are of excellent work- 
manship, and can be conscientiously recommended. 

S cts. 

Whipper, or willow 75 00 

Cotton picker 100 00 

Lap machine ; one beater 250 00 

Lap machine ; two beaters 400 00 

Thirty-inch cards ; twenty-one flats 140 00 

Thirty-inch cards; two workers, two strippers, and 

fourteen flats — an improved card 200 00 

Thirty-inch card; three workers, three strippers, six 

flats 210 00 

19* 



222 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

. S eta 

Thirty-inch card; four workers, four strippers, five 
fiat s 220 00 

Thirty-inch card; five workers, four strippers, no flats, 230 00 
Drawing-frame; two heads, four lengths of rollers, 
each with four coilers on each head, and stop mo- 
tions ; each head 87 50 

Drawing-frame; three heads, three lengths of rollers, 
each having three coilers on each head, stop mo- 
tions, and four rows of rollers — improved — per 

head 87 50 

Railway drawing-head ; single rollers, double rollers, 

with plungers and graduating wheels — patent . . . 200 00 
Counter-twist speeder; sixteen bobbins — improved . 270 00 

Counter-twist speeder; twelve bobbins 230 00 

Slubbin-frame; forty-eight spindles, ten inch bobbins; 

per spindle 12 50 

Fly-frame; 100 spindles, six inch bobbins; per 

s P inclle 10 00 

Throstles ; two inch bobbins, live spindles 4 75 

Throstles ; two and a half inch bobbins, live spindles, 4 75 
Throstles ; four inch bobbins, twist ring frame, per 

s P indle 3 75 

Throstles ; four inch bobbins, twist ring frame, fill- 



ing 



g; per. spindle 3 75 

Jenks' improved ring-frame throstle ; spindles make 
10,000 revolutions per minute; front roller, cast 
steel, 160 revolutions per minute; to spin without 
bobbins ; per spindle 375 

Mules; 240 to 600 spindles, half self-acting; per 

spindle 2 00 

Heels, for cops 30 00 



MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS. 223 

$ cts. 

Keels, for bobbins, forty spindles . . , 4000 

Yarn press — improved . 30 00 

Spooling-frame ; twenty-four spools 100 00 

Spooling-frame ; thirty spools 110 00 

Warping-mill and hack ; 120 eyes 55 00 

Sizing troughs, with iron squeezers 60 00 

Dressing machines and section beams 350 00 

Warping-mills, with drop wires , 100 00 

Beaming machine 70 00 

Frame and slide-rest for cards 80 00 

Railway for cards — mahogany — per card 8 00 

Card grinder, with iron cylinder 8000 

Doubler and twister ; forty spindles, four inch bob- 
bins, three inch heads ; per spindle 5 00 

Doubler and twister; ninety-six spindles, four inch 

bobbins, three inch heads ; per spindle ......... 4 00 

LOOMS. 

$ cts. 

Looms, thirty-five or forty inch, for plain goods .... 50 00 
Looms, forty inch, with two, three, four, five, and 

six treadles, and thread protectors 50 00 

Looms, forty inch, with two, three, four, and six 
treadles, and thread protectors ; make 200 revolu- 
tions per minute 65 00 

Loom, forty inch, for satinetts, sliding heddles 70 00 

Loom, forty inch, for satinetts, top mounting 90 00 

Loom, forty inch, with two, four, six, and eight 
treadles, and two, four, and six shuttle drop boxes, 

for pantaloons and vestings — Jenks' patent 90 00 

Jacquard's fancy table-cloth loom 60 00 



224 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

WAGES OF HANDS EMPLOYED, AND COST OF RUNNING 8064 
MULE SPINDLES, WITH PREPARATION, BY STEAM- 
POWER, PER MONTH, OF FOUR WEEKS. 

rfands. $ cts. 

29 In preparatory department, picking and carding 

room 86 75 

1 Carrying bobbins to mules; part paid by Com- 

pany 2 00 

Amount of wages per week 88 75 

4 

Amount of wages per month in the first depart- 
ment* 355 00 

14 Fourteen mules, spinning 373,980 skeins of 

chain, at 17 cents per 100 skeins 645 76 

10 Ten mules, spinning 373,980 skeins of filling, 

at 16 cents per 100 skeins 598 36 

48 Boys are also required for these twenty-four 
mules, which run 8064 spindles, and spin 
747,960 skeins of No. 22 J yarn, weighing 
33,260 pounds. 

11 Spoolers, spooling 373,980 skeins per month, 

at 3 i cents per 100 skeins 125 89 

6 "Warpers, warping 373,980 skeins per month, 

at 4J cents per 100 skeins 168 29 

3 Manager, clerk, and watchman, per month . . 116 00 

2 A carpenter and a jobber, occasionally 24 00 

2 Engineer and fireman, per month 56 00 

Forty-eight tons of coal per month, at $3 75. 180 00 

126 Hands, in all. Total expense per month, $2269 00 

* This department contains one willey, one spreading-machiue, 
twenty-eight thirty-inch cards, four drawing-frames, with three 
beads, and eight belt-speeders, of twelve ends each. 



MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS. 225 



Per lb Per 100 skeins. 

cts. cts. 



The preparation costs 1.07 . . 4.75 

Spinning, per pound 3.74 . . 16.50 

All other items, including coal, &c 2.01 . . 9.00 

Total cost of wages and fuel 6.82 . . 30.25 

There are no mechanics' wages, hauling, or other incidental 
expenses, included in the foregoing estimate : if these were 
added, it would raise the average cost to 8.50 cents per pound. 



WAGES OF HANDS, AND EXPENSE OF RUNNING 9332 

SPINDLES, WITH PREPARATION, PER MONTH OF 

FOUR WEEKS, BY WATER-POWER. 

Hands. $ cts. 

36 Hands in picking room and carding room, per 

week 116 25 

1 Carrying speeder-bobbins to spinning room . 4 00 

Amount of wages per week 120 25 

4 

Amount of wages per month in this depart- 
ment* 481 00 

83 Twenty-nine throstles, running 3304 spindles, 
and spinning 277,536 skeins, or 11,564 lbs. 
of No. 24 yarn 308 00 

70 Amount carried forward, 789 00 

* This department contains one willey, two spreaders, thirty-six 
cards, five of which are thirty-six inches, and the others twenty-four 
inches wide, four drawing-frames, eleven speeders, two plates, 
and nine condensing-strap speeders. 



226 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 



$ ets 

70 Amount brought forward, 789 00 

11 Twenty-one mules, running 6028 spindles, 
and spinning 506,232 skeins, or21,093 lbs. 
of No. 24 yarn. 
38 Boys are required for these twenty-one mules. 
The whole number of mules and throstles 
run 9332 spindles, and spin 783,768 
skeins, or 32,657 lbs. of No. 24 yarn. 
Six of these mules run on shuttle cops, and 
spin 157,248 skeins, which is, at 14 cents 

per 100 skeins 220 14 

Fifteen mules run on reel cops, and spin 
348,984 skeins, which, at 12 J cents per 

100 skeins, amounts to 436 23 

14 Heelers, reeling 8724 doffs, at 2 cents each. 174 48 
6 Bobbin reelers, reeling 3000 doffs, at 2 J cts. 75 00 
4 Bobbin spoolers, spooling 157,536 skeins, at 

3 cents per 100 skeins 47 26 

3 "Warpers, warping 157,536 skeins, at 5 J cts. 

per 100 skeins 82 70 

2 Mechanics, per month 72 00 

2 Apprentices to mechanics, per month 28 00 

1 Carpenter, jobbing, &c, per month 24 00 

3 Clerk, yarn baler, and watchman 84 00 

154 Hands. Total wages per month, full time, $2032 81 

Per lb. Per 100 skeins 

cts. cts. 

The preparation of 32,657 lbs. costs 1.17 . . 6.13 

Throstle spinnings, 11,564 lbs. cost 2.65 . . 11.09 

Mule spinnings, 21,093 lbs. cost 3.11 . . 12.96 

Total cost in wages 6.22 . . 26.00 



MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS. 227 

In the foregoing estimate, no allowance has been made 
for other incidental expenses, such as hauling, castings, 
paper, twine, nails, brushes, oil, leather, cloth, bobbins, 
lumber, &c, which will advance the cost to 8.09 cents per 
pound. 



WAGES IN THE NEW" ENGLAND STATES. 

The rate of wages paid at present in the New England 
States, may be said to be, on an average, as follows. The 
tariff of prices agreed upon by the different manufacturers 
at Fall River, Mass., in December, 1850, allows the sub- 
joined prices for making G0X64 printing cloth, 28 inches 
wide : — 

Cfs. Mills 

Weaving, thirty-five yards 15 

Dressing, thirty-five yards 2 5 

Warping, per beam 25 

Spooling, per pound 5 

Drawing-in, per beam 130 

Spinning warp, per 100 skeins 8 

Spinning No. 27 filling, per 100 skeins .... 10 

The filling is spun by self-acting mules, and the warp is 
spun by throstles. 



228 



AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 



A CORRECT ACCOUNT OF THE WEIGHT OF YARN SPUN EACH WEEK, IN A 

FACTORY CONTAINING 8212 SPINDLES, DURING SIX MONTHS, OR 

TWENTY-SIX WEEKS. ALSO, OF THE WASTE PER WEEK. 



Weight of 

Yarn. 

lbs. 

5766J 

6341 

6475f 

6313f 

6588J 

6486J 

6641* 

4927J 

6417 

4864J 

6381 



Weight of 

Lap Waste. 

lbs. 

130 .. 

200 .. 
200 .. 
300 .. 
600 .. 
300 .. 
227 .. 
329 .. 
327 .. 
268 .. 
362 .. 



Picker 

Waste. 

lbs. 

270 
393 
132 
388 
325 
284 
311 
250 
304 
312 
260 



Weight of 

Sweepings. 

lbs. 

357 

250 
310 
363 
322 
331 
300 
243 
275 
251 
304 



5753J 


. . 244 


. 275 


. . 275 


3375i 


. . 300 


. 262 


. . 349 


2996 


. . 160 


. 131 


.. 152 


3312 


. . 60 


. 183 


. . 217 


6533J 


. . 319 


. 353 


. . 247 


7215J 


. . 400 . 


. 456 


. . 475 


7028 


. . 506 


. 220 


. . 322 


7476 


. . 300 


. 500 


. . 222 


8581 


. . 371 . 


. 306 


. . 362 


6825| 


. . 355 . 


. 316 


. . 261 


7449 


. . 384 . 


. 456 


. . 461 


7253f 


. 525 . 


. 214 


. . 235 


7306J 


. 300 . 


. 857 


. . 393 


6186J 


. 400 . 


. 125 


. . 158 


7258J 


. 314 . 


. 316 


. . 323 


161,752J . 


. 7981 . 


. 7699 


. 7758 


The diminution of quantity in some weeks 


was owing to time lost 


by back- 


svater: the 


increase, to an increased number 


)f spindles. | 



It appears from 
this account, that the 
waste and wrappers 
amounted to 16.59 
per cent, of the yarn 
produced, in addi- 
tion to the sand that 
falls out in picking 
and carding, which 
would raise it to 17 
percent. This shows 
that 100 pounds of 
raw cotton will only 
produce 83 pounds 
of yarn ; and that, 
when cotton is 10 
cents per pound, 2 
cents may be added 
to each pound for 
the loss. If screens 
were added to the 
cards, they would 
save a great deal of 
this waste. 

The waste of this 
factory is in the fol- 
lowing ratio : 



.... 7.981 
Picker waste 7.699 
Sweepings . 7.758 
Bales & ropes 3.400 

26.838 



MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS. 



229 





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230 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

The total cost of each pound of yarn, in wages and general 
expenses, is 8.09 cents. The noted price of cotton is about 
the average. The amount charged for wages is correct, and 
an ample allowance is made for contingent expenses. The 
price of yarn in the market being subject to continual fluctu- 
ation, the estimate is of course fictitious in this particular. 
With all these disadvantages, there is a profit upon the yarn 
produced, of 6.33 cents per pound, including the 894 worth 
of waste. Such a profit should pay, even in the dullest times. 
The estimate made here is for full time ; when there is a loss 
of time, or a smaller quantity of yarn is spun, the profits 
will, of course, be proportionately smaller. 

MODE OF CONSTRUCTING A FACTORY CLOCK. 

These clocks have two hands and a dial, like a common 
clock, and are always placed beside one of the latter. The 
factory clock has "Mill time," painted on the dial; the dial 
of the other clock has " Clock time" inscribed upon it. 

Suppose a shaft makes sixty revolutions per minute, with 
a worm on one end of it, what wheels will be required to 
form the clock ? 

RULE. 

Set a wheel, with 60 teeth, to work in the worm on the 
shaft above mentioned. Let a worm also be fixed on the 
shaft of the latter wheel, to work into another wheel of 60 
teeth ; this wheel will make one revolution per hour. There 
are now four wheels to be found, to cause a hand to move 
around once in twelve hours : any two driving wheels will 
answer this purpose, one being one-fifth smaller than the 
other. The largest of these should work into another wheel, 
having three times the number of teeth ; and the smallest 



MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS. 231 

should work into a wheel with four times the number of 
teeth. The smallest wheel must be fastened to the last worm 
shaft. 

Suppose one of the two driving wheels has 12 teeth, and 
the other has 15 teeth; the wheel of 15 teeth workiDg into 
one of 45 teeth, and the one of 12 teeth working into a wheel 
of 48 teeth. Multiply the 12 and 15 together for a divisor, 
and the 45 and 48 together for a dividend : the quotient will 
show that the hand goes round once in 12 hours ; provided 
the engine or water-wheel loses no time, or has not too slow 
a motion. In either case, the machinery of the mill must be 
kept in motion until the hands of the mill clock arrive at the 
proper time. The key of this clock is usually kept by the 
manager, whose duty it is to see that it is truly and properly 
set every morning. 

EXAMPLE. 
Drivers. Driven. 

15 48 

12 45 

180 240 

192 



180)2160(12 Ans. 
180 



360 
360 



. It requires twelve hours for this hand to make one revo- 
lution. 

For the motion of the minute hand, see the rule, where a 
shaft performs sixty revolutions per minute, with a worm on 
the end, working into another wheel of sixty teeth, and moves 
the hand around the dial once in twenty-four hours. 



232 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 



A CONCISE DESCRIPTION OE THE VARIOUS KINDS OF 
COTTON. 

Cotton is the most valuable, by far, of the exports of tha 
United States, and one that has grown up with a rapidity 
altogether unprecedented. No country, in any previous era, 
ever possessed so valuable an export; and no material for 
manufacture ever spread so rapidly and so widely as this has 
done, within the last forty years. In this there is something 
very remarkable, as neither the material nor the manufacture 
is of recent date ; the plant being common to the tropical re- 
gions of both the Old and New Worlds, and native to the 
loom. It was among tbe first of the raw materials used in 
the manufacture of cloth • p-nd it is enumerated among those 
of India, by Herodotus, tho earliest of the profane historians. 
It was one of the valuables found by the Spaniards among 
the Mexicans and Peruvians, ard one of the first taken notice 
of by Europeans in their southern colonies. Yet, notwith- 
standing all this, the miracles it hw wrought are within the 
memory of the present generation. S^pu after the termina- 
tion of the American Kevolution, in 17£3, a small quantity 
of raw cotton was shipped from G-eorgia ; but, until the year 
1793, the export was confined to the " Sea Island," commonly 
called " black seed/' or long staple cotton, the cultivation of 
which was necessarily very limited. In 1770, there was ex- 
ported to Liverpool from New York, three bags of cotton 
wool; from Virginia and Maryland, four bags; and, from 
North Carolina, three barrels. The "green seed," "short 
staple/' or "upland/' as it is now called, which will grow 
anywhere, was at that time comparatively worthless, owing 
to the difficulty of separating the staple from the seed. 



DESCRIPTION OF COTTON. 283 

INVENTION OF WHITNEY'S COTTON-GIN. 

The genius of Mr. Whitney, however, at last invented a 
machine, which has done for the planters of America, what 
the genius of Arkwright effected for the cotton manufacturers 
of England and the whole world. From this time, cotton 
assumed a position equal to printing and steam, in revolution- 
izing the world. Of Mr. Whitney, the benefactor of his age 
and of his country, it is painful to add, that neglect and 
penury was his portion. Fifty thousand dollars, given to him 
by the States of Virginia, and North and South Carolina, for 
his machine, was all expended in maintaining his patent-right 
in Georgia, where it was chiefly needed. A tardy decision at 
length secured his right against these encroachments, but not 
until thirteen out of the fourteen years which is allowed to 
each patentee had expired. After a few ineffectual struggles 
to obtain an extension of his patent, he died a broken-hearted 
man; poor in the midst of the wealth he had himself created. 
Alas ! such is often the fate of scientific genius ! with all the 
protection of the law, it is hard to guard what nature has not 
guarded : an invention once known is equally the property of 
all ) it is gone from its possessor for ever. Previous to the 
year 1790, the supply of raw cotton for the British manufac- 
turers was principally derived from the West Indies and the 
Levant; but since the invention of the cotton-gin, its pro- 
duction has increased so rapidly in the United States, that it 
now ranks among the most valuable of its exports. 



DIFFERENCE IN COTTON 

Cotton is a fibrous down, which invests the seeds of a pecu- 
liar plant, called gossypium by Linnosus. It has a cup-shaped 
20* 



234 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

calix, with five obtuse teeth, enclosed in an exterior calix, 
having three clefts. Botanists describe thirteen species of 
this plant, which furnish the very dissimilar staples found in 
commerce. The length, flexibility, tenacity, and thickness 
of the fibres of the different descriptions of cotton, form the 
basis for estimating the value of the article. When examined 
through a good microscope, the fibres of cotton are seen to be 
more or less flat and twisted, and to have a breadth varying 
from g-i^ of an inch in the Smyrna, or candle-wick cotton, to 
ss^oo °^ an mcn ^ n ^ ne fi nes ^ Sea Island. The fineness of 
the cotton, where No. 500 is spun, is apparent from the fol- 
lowing circumstance. It is said that a house in Manchester, 
England, is preparing a fabric for the Great Industrial Exhi- 
bition of London, which is to be spun from a pound of cotton, 
and to extend in length 238 miles and 1120 yards. There 
are, in the warp, eighty layers of a yard and a half each, with 
seven warps to the hank, and five hundred hanks in the pound 
of cotton. This is a thread which is finer than the finest silk, 
and cannot contain more than three or four fibres of the finest 
Sea Island cotton. 

The main distinction between the various kinds of cotton 
in the pod, is the black seeded and the green seeded. The 
first separate from the fibre very easily ; while the latter ad- 
here to it with great tenacity, and require the aid of the gin 
to separate them from it. After the cotton is separated from 
the seed, it is packed in strong presses, and formed into bales 
of from 200 to 500 pounds each. Bales of American cotton 
generally weigh about 500 pounds each. 



DESCRIPTION OF COTTON. 



233 



THE CAUSE OF SHORT CROPS. 

Since the introduction of cotton into the United States, its 
price has been very variable. A few years since, cotton was 
as low as six cents a pound, and at present (1851,) it is as high 
as fourteen cents. This fluctuation is partially caused by the 
short crops, but principally by the increased demand. As 
short crops have some influence upon the domestic consump- 
tion of cotton, we shall here insert a table, showing the cause 
of short crops. This table has reference only to cotton grown 
in America ; it is a valuable compilation, giving the date at 
which the cotton bloomed, that of the appearance of frost, and 
the amount of the crop in bales. It may be made very useful 
to our cotton spinners and cotton brokers. 



Year. 

1836 
1837 
1838 
1839 
1840 
1841 
1842 
1843 
1844 
1845 
1848 
1847 
1848 
1849 



Date of Bloom. 

June 4, 
May 7, 
June 14, 

May 24, 
June 6, 
June 10, 
May 17, 
June 12, 
May 31, 
May 30, 
June 10, 
May 29, 
May 30, 
June 15, 



Date of Frost. 

October 14, 
October 27, 
October 7, 
November 7, 
October 17, 
October 15, 
November 1, 
October 15, 
October 30, 
November 3, 
November 1, 
November 27, 
November 20, 
December 10, 



Crop in Bales. 

. 1,432,000 

. 1,800,000 

. 1,360,000 

. 2,117,000 

. 1,630,000 

. 1,683,000 

. 2,379,000 

. 2,030,000 

. 2,394,000 

. 2,100,000 

. 1,800,000 

. 2,348,000 

. 2,700,000 

. 2,100,000 



From this, it appears that a late bloom is invariably suc- 
ceeded by a short crop. 



238 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

A DESCRIPTION OF THE COTTON PRODUCED IN NORTH 
AMERICA, AND OTHER PARTS OF THE WORLD. 

Cotton is manufactured so extensively, and into such a 
variety of cloths of different qualities, that a short account 
of the several kinds used in making cotton yarn, with some 
remarks upon their qualities, the estimation in which they are 
held by cotton spinners, the countries where they grow, to- 
gether with other interesting subjects, cannot fail to prove in- 
teresting to managers, and carding and spinning masters. It 
is, in fact, so intimately connected with the plan of the work, 
that it might be considered incomplete, if this subject were 
not included in it. 

COLOUR OF RAW COTTON. 

Cotton is distinguished in commerce by its colour, the 
length of its staple or fibre, and its strength and fineness. A 
white colour is generally considered to be characteristic of an 
inferior quality. The cotton of Smyrna, Cyprus, Salonica, 
and all parts of the Levant, is distinguished by its white 
colour. The chief part of the North American cotton is also 
white, viz. : New Orleans, Tennessee, Alabama, and Georgia 
upland. Yellow, when not the effect of accidental wetting, 
or the result of an inclement season, is an indication of fine- 
ness and strength. The cotton of the West Indies and South 
America is called yellow ; but its colour is not quite yellow, 
and inclines more to a cream colour. The East India cotton 
has a slight tinge of orange. The fine Georgia Sea Island, 
though not properly a yellow cotton, has a faint, but decided 
tinge of yellow, which distinguishes it from the white short 
staple cotton of America. 



DESCRIPTION OF COTTON. 237 

We subjoin a description of nearly all the varieties of cotton 
used, with short notices of their quality and value. 



SEA ISLAND COTTON 

Is produced on the coast of the State of Georgia, and on 
the small sandy islands contiguous to it. It also grows in 
both North and South Carolina. It is a fine silky cotton, of 
a yellowish tinge, and both long and strong in the staple. 
The finest kind of this cotton is used only for spinning the 
finest qualities of yarn used in the manufacture of lace. Some 
qualities of Sea Island are used in spinning power-loom warps 
for superior shirtings. It mixes, cards, and spins well with 
upland cotton, and a sixth or eighth part of it, mixed with 
New Orleans, very much improves the quality of the yarn. 
The staple is from 1 J to If inches long; therefore, in work- 
ing this cotton, the middle and front rollers in drawing-frames, 
speeders, and spinning machines, must be placed at a greater 
distance from each other than they are usually, in order to 
make it draw well. Good qualities of this cotton command 
a higher price than the upland. 



UPLAND COTTON 

Is a different species from the Sea Island, and is produced 
in the inland districts of the States of Virginia, North and 
South Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, 
Louisiana, Texas, and other States. This is generally a light 
flimsy cotton, of a weak and very unequal staple, and having 
an intermixture of long fibres. 



238 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 



NEW ORLEANS COTTON. 

This is a superior cotton to the upland, and has the pre* 
ference on account of its clean, soft, and glossy appearance. 
It is rather short in the staple, hut is even and strong, and is 
easily incorporated with other cottons of a longer staple. It 
is grown on- the banks of the Mississippi and Red rivers, and 
is exported in very large quantities to the British and French 
markets, where it ranks in price and quality equally with the 
Brazil cotton. Upland, Alabama, and Tennessee rank next 
to New Orleans ; they are soft, short, and weak in the staple. 

CLEANING COTTON BY THE GIN. 

Various methods of cleaning cotton have been adopted at 
different periods. In the West Indies, and on the Continent 
of America, what is called the roller gin has been long in use. 
It consists of a pair of fluted rollers, about five-eighths or 
three-fourths of an inch in diameter, and ten inches in length. 
These are fitted up in a frame, and made to revolve by the 
application of power : the cotton is passed between the rollers, 
and the seed separated from it ; the diameter of the rollers 
being so small that the gins cannot be drawn in between them. 
This is but a slow operation, and therefore very expensive ; 
it is consequently used only for the best qualities of cotton. 
The process of switching was tried, but disapproved of by 
the manufacturers, on account of its injurious effect upon the 
staple. 

BOWED GEORGIA COTTON. 

The cotton called "bowed Georgia," takes its name from 
a mode of cleaning which has been long in use. This opera- 



DESCRIPTION OF COTTON. 239 

tion was performed by the use of a bow-string, which, being 
raised by the hand, and suddenly released, struck upon the 
cotton with considerable force, and thereby served both to se- 
parate the gins and to open the cotton, so as to render it more 
fit for the processes which followed. But, whatever advantages 
this mode of cleaning may have possessed, so far as the quality 
was concerned, it has long since been abandoned for other and 
more rapid methods of cleaning. 

THE SAW GIN. 

What is now called "bowed Georgia/ 7 has, in reality, been 
cleaned for a long time by a machine denominated a saw-gin. 
This machine consists of a series of circular saws, forming a 
cylinder about the size of a weaver's beam ; it has teeth cut 
out like a coarse saw, at equal distances from each other, from 
which it derives its name. The machine originally had wires 
like card teeth in place of these saws ; but they were found 
to make what is called white naps upon the cotton, and the 
saws were substituted in their place. The saws pull the cotton 
through an iron grating, which has such narrow apertures, 
that the seeds or gins cannot pass through. The grating has 
a horizontal inclination, and the cotton is thrown upon it by 
the person attending the machine, when the teeth of the saws 
take hold of it, and pull it through the openings of the grate; 
the gins, being pressed out, roll down the surface of the grat- 
ing, and escape by an opening in the side of the machine. 
The cotton is thrown backwards by the centripetal force of 
the cylinder, aided by a brush cylinder or roller, which als« 
serves for cleaning the cotton from the saws. 

Though this machine does little injury to cotton of a shorl 
staple, yet it is seldom used for the best Sea Island, or an^i 



240 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

other long-stapled cotton. It is remarkable, that when the 
Upland Georgia was first brought to the English market, it 
commanded a higher price, by about two pence per pound, 
when cleaned by the roller gin, than when cleaned by the saw 
gin; but, contrary to all expectation, the saw gin has been 
found to be superior to, and much better adapted for cleaning 
this species of cotton than the other gin, and the cotton 
cleaned hy it is preferred by those who understand the process 
of spinning cotton. The saws separate the gins from the 
cotton more effectually than the rollers, and, at the same time, 
give it a kind of teasing which is found to be highly beneficial 
to its quality. 

SOUTH AMERICAN COTTON. 

Pernambuco cotton has a fine, long staple, is clean and 
pretty, of a uniform quality, and is much esteemed by carders 
and spinners. It is principally used for hosiery. 

Maranham cotton is rather inferior to the Pernambuco, is 
not of such an even quality, nor so clean j it is very similar 
to good Demerara, and is used for the same purposes. 

Bahia cotton is very much like the Maranham, and obtains 
the preference sometimes on account of being cleaner, and 
more even in the length of the staple. 

Rio cotton. — This is a very inferior cotton, having a brown 
colour, and containing much shell ; it is generally used for 
the same purposes as the low West Indian. 

Surinam cotton has a long, fine staple ; it is clean, has a 
yellowish colour, and is a superior cotton. It is used in the 
manufacture of hosiery. 

Cayenne cotton has a fine, good, clean staple, and is pre- 
ferable to the Surinam cotton ; it is used for the same pur- 
poses. 



DESCRIPTION OF COTTON. 241 

Demerara cotton. — This cotton lias deteriorated very much 
in quality since the colony has been in the possession of the 
English. The best has a fine, strong, silky staple, and is 
much esteemed : the inferior kinds are rather brown, dirty, 
and much mixed. 

Berhice cotton. — The quality of this cotton has fallen off 
very much within the last few years. The best descriptions 
of it have a good staple, and are fine, silky, and clean ; but 
latterly there is a great deal of it brown, dirty, and mixed. 

Carthagena cotton has a 'very long staple ; but it is weak, 
stringy, and rather dirty. 

Giron cotton is of a brown colour, has a fair staple, and is 
generally pretty clean. 

Cumana cotton is inferior to the Giron in its staple, and 
not so clean. 

Caraccas cotton is also inferior to the Giron, and contains 
more dirt. 

La Guayra cotton is not as good as the Cumana, but bettor 
than the Caraccas, and not so dirty. 

WEST INDIA COTTON. 

The cotton which comes from the numerous islands com- 
posing the West Indies, is of various qualities ; but, in ge- 
neral, it is a strong, coarse article, irregular in the staple, and 
only adapted to the manufacture of the stouter fabrics of 
cloth, to which it is mostly applied. It is totally unfit for the 
manufacture of fine goods. 

Amongst the various islands, the best cotton is raised in 

some of the Bahamas, Barbadoes, Hayti, Curacoa, Grenada, 

St. Vincent, Guadaloupe, and Tobago. In these islands, 

however, there is not so much cotton raised now as formerly j 

21 



242 AMERICAN COTTON SPIHNEB. 

the attention of the planters being now principally directed to 
the raising of sugar. In the year 1789, there was more 
cotton produced in San Domingo, now Hayti, than is now 
grown in the whole of the West Indies. The crop of that 
year amounted to 7,000^.000 of pounds. 

EAST INDIA COTTON. 

Bourbon cotton is the most even and uniform in its qua- 
lity of any of the different varieties, has a fine, silky staple, 
and is very clean. It is, with the exception of the Sea 
Island,, the most valuable cotton brought into the market. 

Sural cotton has a very fine, but exceedingly short staple. 
It is generally very dirty, containing leaves and sand. It is 
the lowest priced cotton in the market, and is used in the 
manufacture of coarse, low-priced goods. 

Bengal cotton is very much like the Surat, but still shorter 
in the staple. It is generally cleaner, and sells for about the 
same price as the Surat. 

Madras cotton. — There is not much imported from this 
place. It is mostly raised from Bourbon seed, and is some- 
times not unlike it in staple. It is generally dirty, and con- 
tains much shell, which diminishes its value. It is worth but 
little more than the Surat, though some very good kinds will 
bring the price of West India. 

In the years 1818 and 1819, when cotton rose to a very 
high price, being from thirty-one to thirty-four cents per 
pound, there were large quantities of East India cotton im- 
ported ; but the machinery was not suited to such a short 
staple. Numbers of the English manufacturers now turned 
their attention to it, and had machinery made or altered to 
suit the short staple, with quite small rollers., so as to bring 



DESCRIPTION OF COTTON. 248 

their centres closer together. If the machines are prepared 
For it, good No. 50 filling may be spun from Bengal and 
Surat cotton ; but it is used principally for fustians, jeans, 
grandurells, and beaverteens. 

TURKEY AND LEVANT COTTON. 

The Smyrna, Cyprus, and Salonica cottons, are of a short, 
mossy character, and rather dirty. At one period it was the 
only cotton to be met with in the British market, with the 
exception of a few bags from the West Indies, which were 
occasionally imported. Although it has a soft, silky appear- 
ance, yet it is neither well suited to the endurance of the ne- 
cessary operations of manufacturing into yarn, nor does it, 
when finished, make a strong, beautiful, or durable article. 
But a small quantity of it is now imported, which is chiefly 
ased in making candle-wick • this description of cotton being 
more inflammable than any other. 

EGYPTIAN COTTON. 

The first importation of Egyptian cotton into the English 
market was made during the year 1823. Since that time, 
considerable quantities of it have been imported every year. 
It is a very superior cotton, of a yellowish colour, not so fine 
and silky as the Sea Island, and ranks next to it in price and 
quality. It is somewhat irregular in the staple, and prepared 
in a bungling, slovenly manner. No description of cotton 
loses less in carding, and it incorporates freely with cotton of 
a shorter staple, such as New Orleans, Upland, Maranham, 
Bahia, and others. The best and cleanest of the cotton ia 
generally used by the manufacturers for spinning a superior 
quality of fine yarn. 



E44 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

PROPORTIONATE COMMERCIAL VALUE OP THE DIFFERENT 
KINDS OF COTTON. 

In estimating the commercial value of the different kinds 
of cotton, they may be placed in the following order, viz. :— 
Best Sea Island, Egyptian, Bourbon, Pernambuco, Cayenne, 
Bahia, Maranham, Surinam, Demerara, Berbice, Bahama, 
Grenada, Curacoa, Barbadoes, and the West Indies generally; 
Giron, and the best Spanish ; New Orleans, Upland, Tennes- 
see, Alabama, Smyrna, Cyprus, Salonica, Jamaica, St. Kitts, 
and the inferior West Indies ; Carthagena, Caraccas, and the 
inferior Spanish ; Madras, Bengal, and Surat. The relative 
value of cotton in this series is tolerably permanent, and is 
here expressed with considerable accuracy : it is deduced from 
the average prices of the different kinds during a long period. 

THE CULTIVATION OF COTTON 

Is by no means a difficult operation. It is planted very 
much in the same manner as Indian corn, during the month 
of March, or in the early part of April, depending upon the 
northern or southern inclination of the land. It is kept free 
from weeds during the summer by constant ploughing and 
hoeing. When seen at a short distance, during the earlier 
stages of its growth, it has a great resemblance to what are 
termed bunch beans, growing in hills or rows. In autumn, 
the slaves pick the cotton out of the opening pods, and de- 
posit what they collect along the rows, in baskets. This is a 
mode of separating the cotton from the husk or pod which 
contains it. When it is collected in the cotton house, it is 
then cleaned from the seeds by the operation of the gin, which 
is a simple process. It is next pressed into bales by a ma- 
chine somewhat resembling a cider-press, and is then ready 



DESCRIPTION OF COTTON. 245 

for market. A few good hands will cultivate several acres 
of cotton. From one to two bales, and sometimes three, are 
produced on an acre of ground, according to the quality of the 
land. The prices of cotton lands are various, and range from 
$10 or $20, to $30 per acre, and, sometimes, as high as $60, 
according to the quality of the land, its situation, and the 
character of the buildings and machinery upon it. 

THE PRODUCTION OP COTTON 

In America, was, from January, 1845, until December, 
1849, a period of five years, 14,150,000 bales; during which 
period the consumption exceeded the product by nearly 
700,000 bales ; which amount was necessarily abstracted from 
the market, and contributed greatly to the present inflated 
prices of cotton. The cotton crop of the Southern States 
was much smaller in 1849 and in 1850, than it was in 1848 ; 
still, it sold for $30,000,000 more than that raised during the 
latter year. The small crops during the last two years have 
been the apparent cause of the present high prices ; but it 
would be difficult to account for them on this ground alone. 
There is no doubt but that an increased demand for raw 
cotton is the chief agent in bringing about this result, which 
is very encouraging to the cotton growers, as there is a pros- 
pect of the present prices being sustained for a long period. 
The rapid increase of the cotton manufacture in England, 
which has now arrived at the enormous number of 17,000,000 
spindles, overreaches the production of all other parts of the 
world so much, as to cause them to shrink into insignificance. 
England paid $71,984,616 to the United States, last year, 
for raw cotton; which sum is exclusive of that paid to othes 
QOtton-growing nations. 
21* 



24(3 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER! 

The magnitude of the cotton trade, and the dependence of 

England upon foreign nations for its supply of the raw ma- 
terial, has been a just cause of alarm to the manufacturers 
of Great Britain, who have repeatedly tried, and are at pre- 
sent trying to rid themselves of this state of dependence on 
other countries, but particularly on America, for their supply. 
All these experiments, however, have proved to be abortive; 
they will be so again, so far as cotton is concerned. Europe 
and England will have to depend, upon America, and particu- 
larly upon the United States, for their supply of cotton, so 
long as they cannot cultivate and civilize the nations inhabit- 
ing those parts of the world where cotton will grow. It is 
not a particular kind of soil, nor is it a particular treatment, 
which makes the cultivation of cotton profitable; it is the 
union of a high degree of intellect and business qualities in 
the cotton planter, which contribute most to his prosperity. 
The blustering habits of the South Americans, the dishonesty 
of the Asiatic Indians, and the avarice of the African rulers, 
are a safeguard to the North American cotton planter. 

Though our cotton and our cotton planters are so far safe 
against foreign competition ; yet, it is perhaps possible that flax 
may be brought into successful competition with our staple. 
Very recently, the announcement was made in Manchester, 
England, that flax had been prepared in such a manner, as 
to enable it to be spun on cotton machinery. A similar an- 
nouncement was made some fifteen or twenty years since, at 
which time it was considered ridiculous, to cut the long fibre 
of flax short, merely to suit it to the capacity of the throstle 
and mule. At present, the same thing has a different ap- 
pearance ; what was ridiculous twenty years ago, will now be 
grasped at with eagerness, if what it promises can be realized. 
Flax, in its natural state, with its long fibre, is hardly fit to be 



DESCRIPTION OF COTTON. 247 

Epun on machinery; at least, the process is too expensive , 
and, so far, nothing is to be feared from its competition 
with cotton. But, if the flax fibre can be shortened, with- 
out any injury to its texture and strength, there is a reason- 
able prospect of its becoming a successful rival to cotton. 
The announcement of the accomplishment of this operation 
may have a sensible effect on the cotton grower and cotton 
broker; but there is a possibility of the realisation of this 
object. The process upon which the shortening of the 
fibre of flax depends, is a chemical one ; and, as the means 
of chemistry are inexhaustible, we are justified in believing in 
the possibility of the announced invention. If flax continues 
to be spun in its natural long staple, the cotton culture has 
nothing to fear from its competition. 

From Hunt's Merchant's Magazine, December, 1850, we 
copy the following data, respecting the production of, and 
commerce in cotton. The average cotton crop of the United 
States is, 2,351,000 bales per annum. The combined ex- 
portation of all other countries on the globe, is but 440,000 
bales. The bales of the United States are larger than those 
of other countries, which makes the relative yield still greater. 
Of the crop produced in the United States during the last 
year, (1850,) the ratio of the different States was as follows : 
Texas, 31,000 bales; New Orleans, 782,000 bales; Mobile, 
351,000 bales; Florida, 181,000 bales; Georgia, 344,000 
bales; South Carolina, 384,000 bales; other places, 24,000 
bales. 

THE CONSUMPTION OF COTTON 

Shows some very remarkable facts, worthy of our attention. 
Our home consumption is at present 539,000 bales, that of 
England, 1,472,000 bales, and that of France, 363,000 bales; 



248 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

the other European States together, consume about as much 
as France. England is, therefore, by far the largest consumer 
of raw cotton; she uses more than one-half of all the raw 
cotton brought into market. The amount of cotton goods 
used by all the people of Great Britain, and her dependencies, 
does not reach the amount of manufactured goods used in 
the United States : our home consumption is greater in quan- 
tity than that of all Europe. 

A remarkable feature in the cotton trade is, that the con- 
sumption of raw cotton is greater than its production. The 
increase of manufactures has been much more rapid than the 
increase of cotton plantations, which is the natural cause of 
the advance in the prices of cotton ; the manufacturers have 
been drawing on the surplus stock, and have diminished it 
considerably within the last five years. The average amount 
taken by the manufacturers, from 1840 to 1845, was 
2,414,000 bales, showing a considerable increase during the 
latter period; the supply in these respective periods was, 
2,561,000 bales, and 2,791,000 bales. The surplus stock of 
cotton in Europe, in 1844, was 1,101,000 bales; at the end 
of the year 1849, it was only 646,000 bales. 

The above facts show that the advance in cotton is natural, 
and not the result of a speculative movement : there is no 
prospect of a decline in prices, and our manufacturers may as 
well make up their minds to move on slowly, until the stock 
of goods in the market is so much reduced as to command 
higher prices. If the crops of the next and the following 
year are more than average crops, of which there is no pre- 
sent prospect, it would not materially lower the price of cotton. 
England is, in this respect, in a worse predicament than the 
United States, for bulky goods, which are remunerating, she 
eannot manufacture ; these will be left entirely to home pro- 



DESCRIPTION OF COTTON. 249 

duction, in the manufacture of which the Southern States will 
take a prominent part. 

The conditions under which cotton plantations laboured 
during the period of their over-production, which so much 
reduced the price of raw cotton, as to make cotton planting 
unprofitable, may be considered as the cause of the rapid 
growth of the cotton factories in the vicinity of the cotton 
plantations. The present higher value of raw cotton has 
removed that cause ; and, as the culture of cotton is more 
profitable than the spinning of it, the capital which would 
otherwise flow into the factories, will be invested in the ex- 
tension of plantations. The cotton growing and thinly popu- 
lated States cannot produce the finer descriptions of goods, for 
want of the means and skill ) these productions can never be 
taken from the Eastern States ; and the sooner the manufac- 
turers of the New England States, and the States along the 
Atlantic coast, confine themselves to the production of fine 
goods, the better it will be for their interests. England will 
use all her endeavours to increase the cultivation of cotton in 
India, and particularly in Egypt, in order to keep down the 
price of the raw material. But we have nothing to fear from 
these quarters. The only competition which threatens to be 
dangerous to our cotton, is from the use of flax ; if the Eng- 
lish manufacturers succeed in working it cheaply on their 
cotton machinery, there is no doubt that we shall have to use 
most of the cotton ourselves ; for, not only England, but also 
the whole European continent, will prefer the use of linen 
goods to those made of cotton. This will, of course, deprive 
our cotton planters of an extensive market for the produce 
of their plantations. 

The expenses of the Eastern mills for coarse goods, such 
p/3 common heavy sheetings, may be estimated as follows : — 



250 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

Middling fair cotton, per pound .... 13.50 cents. 

Waste 1.48 « 

Labour 3.80 " 

General expenses 2.08 " 

2.80 yards are one pound; this, divided in 20.86 = 7.45 cts. 



A yard of these sheetings, therefore, costs nearly 7 J cents. 
If, on such heavy goods, freight and commission from and to 
the Southern States can be saved, it will be sufficient to pay 
reasonable profits. 

The foregoing considerations do not tend, in the smallest 
degree, to depreciate the value of our cotton interest. If 
Europe does not choose to buy a pound of our raw cotton, we 
can and will be prepared to work it all ourselves, and Europe 
will be compelled to buy our manufactured cotton. All we 
need is, the fostering care of beneficial enactments, to bring 
our manufactures to a high state of cultivation. TTe need only 
means and artistical skill, to enable us to compete in any 
European or other market, with any other nation, notwith- 
standing the apparent disadvantage arising from the higher 
wages which our operatives enjoy, comparatively with those 
of other parts of the world. The inexhaustible mineral re- 
sources of the country will furnish abundant means for in- 
vestments, and the skill of our mechanics is proverbially supe- 
rior to any others. Let us cultivate the production of metals, 
and furnish a liberal education to all, and we may safely chal- 
lenge the world to a competition with our cheap manufactures. 

Cotton, above all other products, is our natural source of 
wealth, and will prove to be a more potent agent in promoting 
our welfare, than it will be to any other nation : it is our 
natural force, and must finally defy all the artificial exertions 
of our neighbours. "We are only beginning to manufacture ; 
Hut our expanding markets, pacific and serene government, 



DESCRIPTION OF COTTON. 25l 

light taxes, abundant food ? cheap materials in all respects, 
genial climate., and, albo-ve all, the untiring progress of our 
artisans, are all combining to make us the chief cotton manu- 
facturers of the world. We now control the market in raw 
cotton, and it will not be many years before we shall also con- 
trol the market in manufactured cottons. The argument of 
cheap labour, so often alluded to hy short-sighted economists, 
is inadmissible in our case ; if historical evidences to the con- 
trary could be applied, they would show conclusively that 
success must follow our contest for the supremacy. But we 
need no historical facts to prove our advantageous position. 
The European States are the only competitors which the 
United States has to fear in a contest of this nature. We 
have already gained on the cotton manufactures of England 
in a ratio that is sufficient to prove the truth of our assertion. 
In the year 1830, the consumption of raw cotton in this 
country was 19 per cent, of that of Great Britain ; now, it 
is 37 per cent. Our manufactories advanced during that pe- 
riod 325 per cent., while those of England only advanced 
125 per cent. The next period of twenty years will show 
this more conclusively than the past. France has been, for 
some time, and is now, stationary; the amount of cotton goods 
she now produces, is actually less than it was five years since. 
The cotton manufactures of the other European States have 
improved, but by a slow progress ; and the amount of cotton 
used is so small, that we are justified in neglecting their rivalry. 
If we consider the natural, social, and political positions of 
those nations which are, or may possibly become competi- 
tors with our eotton manufacturers, there are overwhelming 
advantages in our favour. In our natural relative position to 
our staple, we have a decided advantage; men and money are 
easily moved. If cotton cannot be manufactured cheap enough 
in the Northern or Eastern States,, there will be no difficulty 



252 AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER. 

in removing that branch of industrial art to the Western 01 
Southern States. We can, for home consumption at least, 
move all the materials for manufacturing, more easily than 
England and the European States can move the cotton and all 
materials necessary for manufacturing, food for operatives, &e. 
Our peaceful social condition, in giving scope to the full de- 
velopment of the human faculties, is very congenial to the 
perfection of industrial pursuits ; while, on the other hand, 
the troubled condition of European society is not likely to 
afford that rest and peace of mind necessary to the free opera- 
tions of the intellect. Recent political disturbances have de- 
monstrated that the state of European society is such, that it 
cannot be restored to a peaceful condition for some time to 
come. Our political institutions are still more beneficial to the 
manufacturer than even our natural and social condition. Our 
merchants are not hampered by a government whose aim is 
political superiority, and our mercantile operations are not 
impeded by military enactments and arbitrary legislation. 

We possess every element that enters into the manufacture 
of cotton fabrics. We have iron in superabundance, and of 
such a quality as to defy all competition ; we have mineral 
coal, in such quantities and at such prices, as must appear fabu- 
lous to the inhabitants of other parts of the world j and we 
have a sufficiency of gold, copper, and other metals, to supply 
the wants of all nations. Our natural and unrestricted high- 
ways afford means of communication not equally enjoyed else- 
where ; our climate is highly favourable to life and labour; and, 
above all, we have food enough to supply the whole human 
race, if needed, and a free, honest, and hospitable population, 
with hearts open to all mankind, heads which comprehend, 
und an untiring energy, which shrinks before no difficulty. 

THE END 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Advancement of cotton manufac- 
ture 14 

Advantages of screens ... 86 

Altering weight of lap 62 

Amount of doubling.... 136 

Bad feeding 60 

Banding 180 

Belting 213 

Belts 41 

Belts inside of cards.. 70 

Belts on speeders 128 

Belt speeders, 127 

Belts to convey power 35 

Bobbins. 169 

Bobbin boards 168 

Bobbins, regulating drag 164 

Bobbins, speeder 132 

Bowed Georgia cotton 238 

Breast wheels 43 

Brewster's spindles 162 

Brushes 144 

Building for 5000 spindles 33 

Calculation of draught 160 

Calculations of draught of cards. ..*.. 65 

Calculations of horse power 46, 48 

Calender rollers, draught of. 147 

Cans, revolving of. 140 

Cans, sizes of. 141 

Cap-spindle throstle , 159 

Cards. 65, 70 

Card cylinders. 73 

Carding ...64, 70 

Carriage, regulating speed of... 178 

Clangs around wheels 42 

Causes of difference in weight of lap 62 

Cause of short crops 235 

Change pinions 116 

Changing size of roving 120 

Changing the draught 119 

Cleaning 63 

Cleaning bobbins 166 



PAGE 

Cleaning cotton.. 238 

Cleaning emery 93 

Cleaning the machine 377 

Clearers 144 

Clock for factory 230 

Cloth for feeding 61 

Clothing cards 89 

Clothing the cards 74 

Comb plate setting 82 

Commercial values of cotton 244 

Correcting a mule 175 

Consequences of bad feeding 60 

Consumption of cotton 247 

Conveying power by belts 35 

Cotton 232 

Cotton, advancement of. 14 

Cotton bowed, Georgia 238 

Cotton cleaning 238 

Cotton, commercial value of 246 

Cotton, cultivation of. 244 

Cotton, early history of. 14 

Cotton, East India 242 

Cotton, Egyptian 243 

Cotton gin, Whitney's 233 

Cotton manufacture 13 

Cotton mill in Pawtucket 13 

Cotton, New Orleans 238 

Cotton, production of. 245 

Cotton, South American 240 

Cotton spreading 60 

Cotton stringing 56 

Cotton, Turkey and Levant 243 

Cotton, upland 237 

Cotton weighing 61 

Cotton, West India 241 

Counter belts, width of 216 

Couplings 37 

Covering emeries and rollers 92 

Crops of cotton 235 

Cross-belt, length of. 212 

Cultivation of cotton , 244 

Cutting at drawing-frames 139 

Cylinders for cards , 73 

(253) 



254 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Dead and live spindles, difference... 47 

Dead spindles 155 

Description of a willey 51 

Description of cotton 232 

Difference between mule and throstle 

twist 179 

Difference in cotton 233 

Difference in dead and live spindles. 47 

Difference in weight of lap 62 

Dimensions of a filling mule 173 

Dimensions of a spreading machine. 59 

Dimensions of belt speeders 127 

Dimensions of cards 65, 97 

Dimensions of factory 30 

Dimensions of spindles 157 

Disconnecting gearing 37 

Doffers.... 73 

Doubling 116 

Doubling, importance of. 136 

Draught, calculation of. 160 

Draught, changing 119 

Draught of a drawing head 98 

Draught of calender rollers 147 

Draught of mule, to find 181 

Draught of throstles 159 

Draught, simple method of taking.. 113 

Draught and twist of mules 172 

Drawing 116 

Drawing frame 106 

Drawing frame of Jenks 118 

Drawing frames, speed of. 137 

Drawing, remarks on 136 

Dressers, width of counter belts for. 218 

Dressing machine 206 

Driving belt, length of. 211 

Drum banding 180 

Early history of cotton manufacture 14 

East* India cotton 241 

Eclipse speeder 131 

Effect of water wheels 43 

Egyptian cotton 243 

Emeries, covering of. 92 

Emeries, hand 76 

Emeries, hand making 95 

Emery, kind of. 92 

Emery rollers, covering 92 

Examination of a card 79 

Examination of machinery 39 

Facing cards 88 

Factory clock, how to make 230 

Factory, plan of. 30 

Faller 176 

Feeding cloth 61 

Feeding time 60 

Filling mule 173 

Fillet, to find length 100 

Find draught of any spinning ma- 
chine 180 



PAGE 

Finding draught of card 97 

Finding draught of drawing head 99 
Finding draught of machine with 

three rollers 112 

Finding length of a fillet 10O 

Fire by friction 63 

First cotton mill 13 

Flats, use of. 71 

Fly frames 133 

Frame for drawing 106 

Frames, live and dead spindles, coun- 
ter belts 218 

Friction causes fire 63 

Gearing 35 

Gin, saw 239 

Gin, Whitney's cotton 233 

Governor 45 

Grating to be kept clear 55 

Greatest speed of mule 174 

Grinding the cards 75 

Hand emeries 76 

Heavy machinery near moving 

power 40 

Hoisting passage 32 

Horizontal shafts 35 

Horsepower 47 

Horse power, calculations of. 46, 48 

How to become acquainted with 

machinery 132 

How to fasten pulleys 41 

Importance of doubling 136 

Inclination of spindle 177 

Iron doffers 73 



Jacquard loom 

Jenks' drawing frame... 
Journals inside of cards. 



206 

118 

70 

Kind of emery .^ 92 

Lap, altering weight of 62 

Length of driving belt 211 

Levant cotton 243 

Live spindles 154 

Looms, width of counter belts 218 

Lowell, water wheel at 47 

Lubrication 39 

Machine for spreading 57 

Machines for warping 205 

Machines, spooling 99 

Machines with three beaters 57 

Machinery, examination of. 39 

Machinery, prices of. 219 

Main gearing, remarks on 35 

Manufacture of cotton 13 

Making emery rollers 93 



INDEX. 



255 



PAGE 

Master wheel 44 

Method of finding twists per inch.... 182 

[184, 185 

Method of making weights for yarn. 192 

McCredy's willey 50 

Mixing waste 54 

Mixing raw cotton 54 

Mules 169 

Mule rim banding 180 

Mule spindle banding 180 

Mule spindles, counter belts for 217 

Mule spinning 169, 175 

Mule, to find draught of. 181 

New Orleans cotton 238 

Number of warp, to find 210 

Oiling 63 

Oiling bobbins 166 

Pickers, width of counter belt 216 

Picking department 31 

Picking machine 49 

Pit wheel 44 

Plan of a factory 30 

Power conveyed by belts 35 

Power for throstles 168 

Power loom 206 

Pressing emeries with rollers 96 

Prices of machinery 219 

Production of cotton 245 

Product of throstle 158 

Proving l-ovings 148 

Proving yarn 189 

Pullies *. 41 

Pullies, how to fasten 41 

Quadrant to try rovings 149 

Railroad connecting cards 87 

Raw cotton 236 

Raw cotton, mixing 54 

Reeling 211 

Reeling machine 205 

Regulating drag of bobbin 164 

Regulating speed of carnage 178 

Regulations of carding room 90 

Regulator 45 

Remarks on cards and carding 70 

Remarks on spreading cotton 60 

Remarks on water-wheels 43 

Remarks on willeying cotton 53 

Revolutions of spindles, to find, etc. 183 

Revolutions, to find 188 

Revolving of cans 140 

Ring spindles 155 

Rolling boxes, sizes of 141 

Roving 125 

Roving, changing size 120 

Roving, remarks on 136 



PAGE 

Rovings, table of size 152, 153 

Rovings, to prove 148 

Rule for finding dimensions of card. 97 

Saw gin 239 

Scouring 144. 

Screens 83 

Sea-island cotton 237 

Setting cards 81 

Setting comb plate 82 

Shafts to be turned 41 

Short crops, cause of. 235 

Shuttle cops, size of. 179 

Simplicity of machinery 40 

Size of a reel 211 

Sizes of cans 141 

Size of fillets 101 

Size of shuttle cops 179 

Sliding rest 72 

Sliver from the railroad 119 

Slubbing frames 133 

Skewers 132 

Small weights, to make for yarn 192 

South American cotton 240 

Spare pinion 64 

Spreading machine 57 

Speeders 127 

Speed of drawing frames 137 

Speed of machine, to find 188 

Speed of mule 174 

Speed of parts of card 91 

Speed of spindles 158 

Speed of spreading machine 58 

Speed of water wheels 44 

Spindle, inclination of. 177 

Spindles 166 

Spindles driven by one horse power. 46 

Spindles, live 154 

Spindles, dead 155 

Spindle ring 155 

Spindles, speed of 158 

Spinning-machine, to find draught of. 180 

Spooling machine 219 

Spreading cotton 60 

Steam-engine in an American fac- 
tory 49 

Steam-engine in an English factory. 48 

Stringing cotton 56 

Stripping cards 82 

Sweeping rooms 143 

Table of size of rovings. 152, 153 

Table for size of yarn 191, 193 

Taking draught 113 

Teeth to square inch of card wire... 105 

Throstles 154, 161 

Throstle banding 180 

Throstles., power for 168 

Throstle, product of. 158 

Throstle spindles 161 



256 



INLEX. 



PAGE 

Time to feed 60 

To calculate number of yarn from 

roving 191 

Top rollers 138 

Top rollers, varnish on 146 

Traverse motion 163 

Trying the stuff 114 

Twists, method of finding.. .182, 184, 185 

Twist speeders counter belts 217 

Turkey cotton 243 

Turning up a card 72 

Upland cotton 237 

Use of flats 71 

Use of screens 85 

Yalues of cotton 244 

Various spindles 162 

Varnish on top rollers 146 

Wages 224 

Wages in New England States 227 

Wages of hands 224, 225 

Warping 2u4 

Warping machines 205 

Warp mill 205 



PAGE 

Warp, to find weight of 209 

Waste 141 

Waste, mixing 54 

Waste not good with cotton 56 

Waste per week 228 

Waste weakens the yarn 54 

Water wheels 43 

Water wheel at Lowell 47 

Weaving 204 

Weighing cotton 61 

Weights for yarn 192 

Weight of warp, to find 209 

Weight of yarn spun in a week 228 

West India cotton 241 

Wheels, casings around 42 

Wheel gearing 36 

Whitney's cotton gin 233 

Width of counter belts 217 

Willey 49 

Willey. description of. 51 

Willeying cotton 53 

Wire for cards 90 

Wood for card cylinders 73 

Yarn, to prove 189 

Yam weakened by waste 54 



CATALOGUE 

OF 

PEACTIC1L AND SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, 

PUBLISHED BY 

HENRY CAREY BASRD, 

INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHER, 

3KTo- 406 "W^LUXTTTT STREET, 

PHILADELPHIA. 



fjHf 3 Any of the Books comprised in this Catalogue will be sent by mail, 
free of postage, at the publication price. 

^§P* This Catalogue will be sent, free of postage, to any one who will 
furnish the publisher with his address. 



A RMENGAUD, AMOUROUX, AND JOHNSON— THE PRACTICAL 
-* 1 DRAUGHTSMAN'S BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN, AND 
MACHINIST'S AND ENGINEER'S DRAWING COMPANION: 
Forming a complete course of Mechanical Engineering and 
Architectural Drawing. From the French of M. Armengaud 
the elder, Prof, of Design in the Conservatoire of Arts and 
Industry, Paris, and MM. Armengaud the younger and Amou- 
roux, Civil Engineers. Rewritten and arranged, with addi- 
tional matter and plates, selections from and examples of the 
most useful and generally employed mechanism of the day. 
By William Johnson, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Editor of "The 
Practical Mechanic's Journal." Illustrated by 50 folio steel 
plates and 50 wood-cuts. A new edition, 4to. . $10 00 

A RROWSMITH.— PAPER-HANGER'S COMPANION : 

A Treatise in which the Practical Operations of the Trade are 
Systematically laid down: with Copious Directions Prepara- 
tory to Papering ; Preventives against the Effect of Damp on 
Walls; the Various Cements and Pastes adapted to the Seve- 
ral Purposes of the Trade; Observations and Directions for 
the Panelling and Ornamenting of Rooms, &c. By James 
A rrowsmith, Author of "Analysis of Drapery," &c. 12mo , 
cloth . . ... . * . . . $1 £5 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 



B 



.USD.— THE AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER, AND MANA- 
GER'S AND CARDER'S GUIDE : 

A Practical Treatise on Cotton Spinning ; giving the Dimen- 
sions and Speed of Machinery, Draught and Twist Calcula- 
tions, etc. ; with notices of recent Improvements : together 
with Rules and Examples for making changes in the sizes and 
numbers of Roving and Yarn. Compiled from the papers of 
the late Robekt H. Baikd. 12mo. . . . §51 50 

"DAKER.— LONG-SPAN RAILWAY BRIDGES : 

Comprising Investigations of the Comparative Theoretical and 
Practical Advantages of the various Adopted or Proposed Type 
Systems of Construction; with numerous Formulae and Ta- 
bles. By B. Baker. 12mo $2 00 

-DAKEWELL.— A MANUAL OF ELECTRICITY— PRACTICAL AND 
B THEORETICAL : 

By F. C. Bakewell, Inventor of the Copying Telegraph. Se- 
cond Edition. Revised and enlarged. Illustrated by nume- 
rous engravings. 12mo. Cloth . . . . $2 00 

TDEANS— A TREATISE ON RAILROAD CURVES AND THE LO- 
D CATION OF RAILROADS : 

By E. W. Beans, C. E. 12mo. (In press.) 

mENKARN.— -PRACTICAL SPECIFICATIONS OF WORKS EXE- 
D CUTED IN ARCHITECTURE, CIVIL AND MECHANICAL 
ENGINEERING, AND IN ROAD MAKING AND SEWER- 
ING: 

To which are added a series of practically useful Agreements 
and Reports. By John Blenxarn. Illustrated by fifteen 
large folding plates. 8vo $9 00 

TDLINN.— A PRACTICAL WORKSHOP COMPANION FOR TIN, 
*° SHEET-IRON, AND COPPER-PLATE WORKERS : 

Containing Rules for Describing various kinds of Patterns 
used by Tin, Sheet-iron, and Copper-plate Workers ; Practical 
Geometry; Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids; Tables of the 
Weight of Metals, Lead Pipe, etc. ; Tables of Areas and Cir- 
cumferences of Circles; Japans, Varnishes, Lackers, Cements, 
Compositions, etc. etc. By Lekoy J. Bltnn, Master Me- 
chanic. With over One Hundred Illustrations. 12mo. $2 50 



B 



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HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 3 

OOTH.— MARBLE WORKER'S MANUAL : 

Containing Practical Information respecting Marbles in gene- 
ral, their Cutting, Working, and Polishing ; Veneering of 
Marble ; Mosaics ; Composition and Use of Artificial Marble, 
Stuccos, Cements, Receipts, Secrets, etc. etc. Translated 
from the French by M. L. Booth. With an Appendix con- 
cerning American Marbles. 12mo., cloth . . $1 50 

OOTH AND MORFIT.— THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CHEMISTRY, 
PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL : 
Embracing its application to the Arts, Metallurgy, Mineralogy, 
Geology, Medicine, and Pharmacy. By James C. Booth, 
Melter and Refiner in the United States Mint, Professor of 
Applied Chemistry in the Franklin Institute, etc., assisted by 
Campbell Morfit, author of "Chemical Manipulations," etc. 
Seventh edition. Complete in one volume, royal 8vo., 978 
pages, with numerous wood-cuts and other illustrations. $5 00 

DOWDITCH.— ANALYSIS, TECHNICAL VALUATION, PURIFI- 

13 CATION, AND USE OF COAL GAS : 

By Rev. W. R. Bowditch. Illustrated with wood engrav- 
ings. 8vo. . . .. $6 50 

-nOX.— PRACTICAL HYDRAULICS : 

A Series of Rules and Tables for the use of Engineers, etc. 
By Thomas Box. 12mo $2 00 

TjTJCKMASTER.— THE ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL PHYSICS : 
By J. C. Buckmaster, late Student in the Government School 
of Mines ; Certified Teacher of Science by the Department of 
Science and Art ; Examiner in Chemistry and Physics in the 
Royal College of Preceptors ; and late Lecturer in Chemistry 
and Physics of the Royal Polytechnic Institute. Illustrated 
with numerous engravings. In one vol. 12mo. . $1 50 



B 



ULLOCK— THE AMERICAN COTTAGE BUILDER : 

A Series of Designs, Plans, and Specifications, from $200 to 
to $20,000 for Homes for the People ; together with Warm- 
ing, Ventilation, Drainage, Painting, and Landscape Garden- 
ing. By John Bullock, Architect, Civil Engineer, Mechani- 
cian, and Editor of "The Rudiments of Architecture and 
Building," etc. Illustrated by 75 engravings. In one vol. 
8vo. . . . . $3 50 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 



p TLLOCX. — THE RUDIMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE AND 

V BUILDING: : 

For the use of Architects, Builders, Draughtsmen, Machin- 
ists, Engineers, and Mechanics. Edited by John Bullock, 
author of " The American Cottage Builder." Illustrated by 
250 engravings. In one volume 8vo. . . . $3 50 

•pURGH.— PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATIONS OF LAND AND MA- 

n RINE ENGINES : 

Showing in detail the Modern Improvements of High and Low 
Pressure, Surface Condensation, and Super-heating, together 
with Land and Marine Boilers. By N. P. Burgii, Engineer. 
Illustrated by twenty plates, double elephant folio, with text. 

"$21 00 

pURGH.— PRACTICAL RULES FOR THE PROPORTIONS OF 

D MODERN ENGINES AND BOILERS FOR LAND AND MA- 
RINE PURPOSES. 
By N. P. Burgh, Engineer. 12mo. . . . $2 00 

pURGH.— THE SLIDE-VALVE PRACTICALLY CONSIDERED : 
By N. P. Burgh, author of " A Treatise on Sugar Machinery," 
"Practical Illustrations of Land and Marine Engines," "A 
Pocket-Book of Practical Rules for Designing Land and Ma- 
rine Engines, Boilers," etc. etc. etc. Completely illustrated. 
12mo . . . . $2 00 

pYRN.— THE COMPLETE PRACTICAL BREWER : 

Or, Plain, Accurate, and Thorough Instructions in the Art of 
Brewing Beer, Ale, Porter, including the Process of making 
Bavarian Beer, all the Small Beers, such as Root-beer, Ginger- 
pop, Sarsaparilla-beer, Mead, Spruce beer, etc. etc. Adapted 
to the use of Public Brewers and Private Families. By M. La 
Fayette Btrn, M. D. With illustrations. 12mo. $1 25 

TJYRN.— THE COMPLETE PRACTICAL DISTILLER : 

Comprising the most perfect and exact Theoretical and Prac- 
tical Description of the Art of Distillation and Rectification ; 
including all of the most recent improvements in distilling 
apparatus ; instructions for preparing spirits from the nume- 
rous vegetables, fruits, etc. ; directions for the distillation and 
preparation of all kinds of brandies and other spirits, spiritu- 
ous and other compounds, etc. ete. ; all of which is so simpli- 
fied that it is adapted not only to the use of extensive distil- 
lers, but for every farmer, or others who may wish to engage 
in the art of distilling By M. La Fayette Byrn, M. D. 
With numerous engravings. In one volume, 12mo. $1 50 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE 



"DYRNE.— POCKET BOOK FOB, RAILROAD AND CIVIL ENGI- 

n NEERS : 

Containing New, Exact, and Concise Methods for Laying out 
Railroad Curves, Switches, Frog Angles and Crossings; the 
Staking out of work; Levelling; the Calculation of Cut- 
tings ; Embankments ; Earth-work, etc. By Oliver Byrne. 
Illustrated, 18mo,, full bound . . . . $1 75 

BYRNE.— THE HANDBOOK FOR THE ARTISAN, MECHANIC, 
AND ENGINEER : 
By Oliver Byrne. Illustrated by 185 Wood Engravings. 8vo. 

$5 00 

pYRNE.— THE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL ME- 
- CHANICS : 

For Engineering Students, based on the Principle of Work. 
By Oliver Byrne. Illustrated by Numerous Wood Engrav- 
ings, 12mo $3 63 

•DYRNE.— THE PRACTICAL METAL-WORKER'S ASSISTANT: 
-Comprising Metallurgic Chemistry; the Arts of Working all 
Metals and Alloys ; Forging of Iron and Steel ; Hardening and 
Tempering ; Melting and Mixing ; Casting and Founding ; 
Works in Sheet Metal ; the Processes Dependent on the 
Ductility of the Metals ; Soldering ; and the most Improved 
Processes and Tools employed by Metal-Workers. With the 
Application of the Art of Electro-Metallurgy to Manufactu- 
ring Processes ; collected from Original Sources, and from the 
Works of Holtzapffel, Bergeron, Leupold, Plumier, Napier, and 
others. By Oliver Byrne. A New, Revised, and improved 
Edition, with Additions by John Scoffern, M. B , William Clay, 
Win. Fairbairn, F. R. S., and James Napier. With Five Hun- 
dred and Ninety-two Engravings ; Illustrating every Branch 
of the Subject. In one volume, 8vo. 652 pages . $7 00 

TDYRNE.— THE PRACTICAL MODEL CALCULATOR: 

For the Engineer, Mechanic, Manufacturer of Engine Work, 
Naval Architect, Miner, and Millwright. By Oliver Byrne. 
1 volume, 8vo., nearly 600 pages . . . . $4 50 

■DEMROSE.— MANUAL OF WOOD CARVING : With Practical Il- 
lustrations for Learners of the Art, and Original and Selected de- 
signs. By William Bemrose, Jr. With an Introduction by 
Llewellyn Jewitt, F. S. A., etc. With 128 Illustrations. 4co., 
cloth $3 00 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 



-pAIRD.— PROTECTION OF HOME LABOR AND HOME PRO- 
*° DTJCTIONS NECESSARY TO THE PROSPERITY OF THE 
AMERICAN FARMER : 

By Henry Carey Baird. 8vo., paper . 10 

"DAIRD.— STANDARD WAGES COMPUTING TABLES : 

An Improvement in all former Methods of Computation, so ar- 
ranged that wages for days, hours, or fractions of hours, at a spe- 
cified rate per day or hour, may be ascertained at a glance. By 
T. Spangler Baird. Oblong folio $5 00 



B 



B 



ISHO?.— A HISTORY OF AMERICAN MANUFACTURES: 
From 1608 to 1866 : exhibiting the Origin and Growth of the Prin- 
cipal Mechanic Arts and Manufactures, from the Earliest Colonial 
Period to the Present Time ; with a Notice of the Important In- 
ventions, Tariffs, and the Results of each Decennial Census. By 
J. Leaxder Bishop, M. D. ; to which are added Notes on the 
Principal Manufacturing Centres and Remarkable Manufactories. 
B}' Edward Young and Edwin T. Freedley. In three vols. 
8vo $10 00 

OX.— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HEAT AS APPLIED TO 
THE USEFUL ARTS : 
For the use of Engineers, Architects, etc. By Thomas Box, au- 
thor of "Practical Hydraulics." Illustrated by 14 plates, con- 
taining 114 figures. 12mo. . . . . . . $4 25 

fjABINET MAKER'S ALBUM OF FURNITURE : 

Comprising a Collection of Designs for the Newest and Most 
Elegant Styles of Furniture. Illustrated by Forty-eight Large 
and Beautifully Engraved Plates. In one volume, oblong 

$5 00 

nHAPMAN.— A TREATISE ON ROPE-MAKING : 

As practised in private and public Rope-yards, with a Description 
of the Manufacture, Rules, Tables of Weights, etc., adapted to the 
Trade ; Shipping, Mining, Railways, Builders, etc. By Robert 
Chapman. 24mo. . . . . . . . . $1 50 

pRAIK.— THE PRACTICAL AMERICAN MILLWRIGHT AND 
^ MILLER. 

By David Craik, Millwright. Illustrated by numerous wood en- 
gravings, and two folding plates. 8vo. {In press.) 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 



HALVERT.— LECTURES ON COAL-TAR COLORS, AND ON RE- 
U CENT IMPROVEMENTS AND PROGRESS IN DYEING ANB 
CALICO PRINTING: 

Embodying Copious Notes taken at the last London Interna- 
tional Exhibition, and Illustrated with Numerous Patterns of 
Aniline and other Colors. By F. Grace Calvert, F. R. S., 
F. C S., Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution, Man- 
chester, Corresponding Member of the Royal Academies of 
Turin and Rouen ; of the Pharmaceutical Society of Paris ; 
Societe Industrielle de Mulhouse, etc. In one volume, 8vo., 
cloth $1 50 

pAMPIN.— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON MECHANICAL EN- 
U GINEERING: 

Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools, 
Workshop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufacture 
of Steam-engines, etc. etc. With an Appendix on the Ana- 
lysis of Iron and Iron Ores. By Francis Campin, C. E. Tg 
which are added, Observations on the Construction of Steam 
Boilers, and Remarks upon Furnaces used for Smoke Preven- 
tion; with a Chapter on Explosions. By R. Armstrong, C. E., 
and John Bourne. Rules,for Calculating the Change Wheels 
for Screws on a Turning Lathe, and for a Wheel-cutting 
Machine. By J. La Nicca. Management of Steel, including 
Forging, Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, Shrinking, and 
Expansion. And the Case-hardening of Iron. By G. Ede. 
8vo. Illustrated with 29 plates and 100 wood engravings. 

$6 00 

pAMPIN.™ THE PRACTICE OF HAND-TURNING IN WOOD, 
U IVORY, SHELL, ETC. : 

With Instructions for Turning such works in Metal as may be 
required in the Practice of Turning Wood, Ivory, etc. Also 
an Appendix on Ornamental Turning. By Francis Campin , 
with Numerous Illustrations, 12mo., cloth . . $3 00 

n APRON DE DOLE.— DUSSAUCE.— BLUES AND CARMINES OF 
^ INDIGO. 

A Practical Treatise on the Fabrication of every Commercial 
Product derived from Indigo. By Felicien Capron de Dole 
Translated, with important additions, by Professor H. Dus- 
sauce. 12mo. . . . . . . . $2 50 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 



nAREY.— THE WORKS OF HENRY C. CAREY: 

CONTRACTION OR EXPANSION? REPUDIATION OR RE- 
SUMPTION? Letters to Hon. Hugh McCulloch. 8vo. 38 

FINANCIAL CRISES, their Causes and Effects. 8vo. paper 

25 

HARMONY OF INTERESTS; Agricultural, Manufacturing, 

and Commercial. 8vo., paper . . . . . $1 00 

Do. do. cloth . . . $1 50 

LETTERS TO THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 
Paper $1 00 

MANUAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. Condensed from Carey's 
"Principles of Social Science." By Kate McKean. 1vol. 
12mo $2 25 

MISCELLANEOUS WORKS: comprising "Harmony of Inter- 
ests," "Money," "Letters to the President," "French and 
American Tariffs," "Financial Crises," " The Way to Outdo 
England without Fighting Her," "Resources of the Union," 
"The Public Debt," "Contraction or Expansion," "Review 
of the Decade 1857 — '67," "Reconstruction," etc. etc. 1 vol. 
8vo., cloth . $4 50 

MONEY: A LECTURE before the N. Y. Geographical and Sta- 
tistical Society. 8vo., paper .'.... 25 

PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 8vo. . . . $2 50 

PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. 3 volumes 8vo., cloth 

$10 00 

REVIEW OF THE DECADE 1857— '67. 8vo., paper 50 

RECONSTRUCTION: INDUSTRIAL, FINANCIAL, AND PO- 
LITICAL. Letters to the Hon. Henry Wilson, U. S. S. 8vo. 
paper ...... . . 50 

THE PUBLIC DEBT, LOCAL AND NATIONAL. How to 

provide for its discharge while lessening the burden of Taxa- 
tion. Letter to David A. Wells, Esq., U. S. Revenue Commis- 
sion. 8vo., paper ....... 25 

THE RESOURCES OF THE UNION. A Lecture read, Dec. 
1865, before the American Geographical and Statistical So- 
ciety, N. Y., and before the American Association for the Ad- 
vancement of Social Science, Boston ... 50 

THE SLAVE TRADE, DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN; Why it 
Exists, and How it may be Extinguished. 12mo., cloth $150 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 



THE WAY TO OUTDO ENGLAND WITHOUT FIGHTING 
HER. Letters to the Hon. Schuyler Colfax. 8vo., paper $1 00 

QAMUS.— A TREATISE ON THE TEETH OF WHEELS: 

Demonstrating the best forms which can be given to them for the 
purposes of Machinery, such as Mill-work and Clo^k-work. Trans- 
lated from the French of M. Camus. By Jchn I. Hawkins. 
Illustrated by 40 plates. 8vo $3 00 

pLOUGH.— THE CONTRACTOR'S MANUAL AND BUILDER'S 

^ PRICE-BOOK : 

Designed to elucidate the method of ascertaining, correctly, 
the value and Quantity of every description of Work and Ma- 
terials used in the Art of Building, from their Prime Cost in 
any part of the United States, collected from extensive expe- 
rience and observation in Building and Designing; to which 
are added a large variety of Tables, Memoranda, etc., indis- 
pensable to all engaged or concerned in erecting buildings of 
any kind. By A. B. Clough, Architect, 24mo., cloth 75 

nOLBURN.— THE GAS-WORKS OF LONDON: 

Comprising a sketch of the Gas-works of the city, Process of 
Manufacture, Quantity Produced, Cost, Profit, etc. By Zerait 
Colburn. 8vo., cloth ...... 75 

nOLBURN.— THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE : 

Including a Description of its Structure, Rules for Estimat- 
ing its Capabilities, and Practical Observations on its Construc- 
tion and Management. By Zerah Colburn. Illustrated. A 
new edition. 12mo. $1 25 

nOLBURN AND MAW.— THE WATER- WORKS OF LONDON : 
Together with a Series of Articles on various other Water- 
works. By Zerah Colburn and W. Maw. Reprinted from 
" Engineering." In one volume, 8vo. . . $4 00 

TjAGUERREQTYPIST AND PHOTOGRAPHER'S COMPANION: 

U 12mo., cloth $1 25 

"HUPLAIS,— A COMPLETE TREATISE ON THE DISTILLATION 
U AND PREPARATION OF ALCOHOLIC AND OTHER LIQ- 
UORS : 

From the French of M. Duplais. Translated and Edited by M. 
McKennie, M D. Illustrated. 8vo. {In press.) 



10 HENRY CARET BARRETS CATALOGUE. 

TJIRCKS.— PERPETUAL MOTION : 

Or Search for Self-Motive Power during the 17tb, 18th, and 
19th centuries. Illustrated from various authentic sources in 
Papers, Essays, Letters, Paragraphs, and numerous Patent 
Specifications, with an Introductory Essay by Henry Dircks, 
C. E. Illustrated by numerous engravings of machines. 
12mo., cloth §3 50 

-T)IX0N.— THE PRACTICAL MILLWRIGHT'S AND ENGINEER'S 
" GUIDE : 

Or Tables for Finding the Diameter and Power of Cogwheels ; 
Diameter, Weight, and Power of Shafts ; Diameter and Strength 
of Bolts, etc. etc. By Thojias Dixon. 12mo., cloth. $1 50 

"nTJNCAN.— PRACTICAL SURVEYOR'S GUIDE: 

Containing the necessary information to make any person, of 
common capacity, a finished land surveyor without the aid of 
a teacher. By Andrew Duncan. Illustrated. 12mo., cloth. 

$1 25 
"nUSSAUCE.— A NEW AND" COMPLETE TREATISE ON THE 
U ARTS OF TANNING, CURRYING, AND LEATHER DRESS- 
ING : 

Comprising all the Discoveries and Improvements made in 
France, Great Britain, and the United States. Edited from 
Notes and Documents of Messrs. Sallerou, Grouvelle, Duval, 
Dessables, Labarraque, Payen, Rene\ De Fontenelle, Mala- 
peyre, etc. etc. By Prof. H. Dussauce, Chemist. Illustrated 
by 212 wood engravings. 8vo. .... $10 00 
TJUSSAUCE.— A GENERAL TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE 
U OF SOAP, THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL : 

Comprising the Chemistry of the Art, a Description of all the Raw 
Materials and their Uses. Directions for the Establishment of a 
Soap Factory, with the necessary Apparatus, Instructions in the 
Manufacture of every variety of Soap, the Assay and Determination 
of the Value of Alkalies, Fatty Substances, Soaps, etc. etc. By 
Professor H. Dussattce. With an Appendix, containing Ex- 
tracts from the Reports of the International Jury on Soaps, as 
exhibited in the Paris Universal Exposition, 1867, numerous 
Tables, etc. etc. Illustrated by engravings. In one volume 8vo. 
of over 800 pages $10 00 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 11 

TJUSSAUCE.— A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR THE PERFUMER : 
Being a New Treatise on Perfumery the most favorable to the 
Beauty without being injurious to the Health, comprising a 
Description of the substances used in Perfumery, the Form- 
ulae of more than one thousand Preparations, such as Cosme- 
tics, Perfumed Oils, Tooth Powders, Waters, Extracts, Tinc- 
tures, Infusions, Vinaigres, Essential Oils, Pastels, Creams, 
Soaps, and many new Hygienic Products not hitherto described. 
Edited from Notes and Documents of Messrs. Debay, Lunel, 
etc. Withadditions by Professor H. Dussauce, Chemist. 12mo. 

$3 00 

TjUSSAUCE.— PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE FABRICATION 
V OF MATCHES, GUN COTTON, AND FULMINATING POW- 
DERS. 

By Professor H. Dussauce. 12mo. . . . $3 00 

TjUSSAUCE.— A GENERAL TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE 
" OF VINEGAR, THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL. 

■Comprising the various methods, by the slow and the quick pro- 
cesses, with Alcohol, Wine, Grain, Cider, and Molasses, as well 
as the Fabrication of Wood Vinegar, etc. By Prof. H. Dussauce. 
I2mo. (hi press.) 

TjE GRAFF.-THE GEOMETRICAL STAIR-BUILDERS' GUIDE: 

Being a Plain Practical System of Hand-Railing, embracing all 
its necessary Details, and Geometrically Illustrated by 22 Steel 
Engravings; together with the use of the most approved princi- . 
pies of Practical Geometry. By Simon De Graff, Architect. 
4to. . $5 00 

TjYER AND COLOR-MAKER'S COMPANION : 

Containing upwards of two hundred Receipts for making Co- 
lors, on the most approved principles, for all the various styles 
and fabrics now in existence ; with the Scouring Process, and 
plain Directions for Preparing, Washing-off, and Finishing tho 
Goods. In one vol. 12mo $1 25 

pASTON.— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON STREET OR HORSE- 

JJ POWER RAILWAYS : 

Their Location, Construction, and Management ; with General 
Plans and Rules for their Organization and Operation ; toge- 
ther with Examinations as to their Comparative Advantages 
over the Omnibus System, and Inquiries as to their Value for 
Investment ; including Copies of Municipal Ordinances relat- 
ing thereto. By Alexander Easton, C. E. Illustrated by 23 
plates, 8vo., cloth $2 00 



12 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 

pDRSYTH.— BOOS OF DESIGNS FOR HEAD-STONES, MURAL, 
C AND OTHER MONUMENTS: 

Containing 78 Elaborate and Exquisite Designs. By Forsyth. 

4to. (l?i press ) 

T7AIRBAIRN.— THE PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM AND MA- 

X CHINERY OF TRANSMISSION : 

Comprising the Principles of Mechanism, "Wheels, and Pulleys, 
Strength and Proportions of Shafts, Couplings of Shafts, and 
Engaging and Disengaging Gear. By William Fairbairn, 
Esq., C. E., LL. D., F. R. S., F. G. S., Corresponding Member 
of the National Institute of France, and of the Royal Academy 
of Turin ; Chevalier of the Legion of Honor, etc. etc. Beau- 
tifully illustrated by over 150 wood-cuts. In one volume 12mo. 

$2 50 

pAIRBAIRN.— PRIME-MOVERS : 

Comprising the Accumulation of Water-power ; the Construc- 
tion of Water-wheels and Turbines; the Properties of Steam; 
the Varieties of Steam-engines and Boilers and Wind-mills. 
By William Fairbairn, C. E , LL. D., F. R. S., F. G. S. Au- 
thor of "Principles of Mechanism and the Machinery of Trans- 
mission." With Numerous Illustrations. In one volume. (In 
press.) 

■pLAMM— A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO TKE CONSTRUCTION OF 
L ECONOMICAL HEATING APPLICATIONS FOR SOLID AND 
GASEOUS FUELS : 

With the Application of Concentrated Heat, and on Waste 
Heat, for the Use of Engineers, Architects, Stove and Furnace 
Makers, Manufacturers of Fire Brick, Zinc, Porcelain, Glass, 
Earthenware, Steel, Chemical Products, Sugar Refiners, Me- 
tallurgists, and all others employing Heat. By M. Pierre 
Flamm, Manufacturer. Illustrated. Translated from the 
French. One volume, 12mo. (In press.) 

niLBART— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON BANKING: 

By James William Gilbart. To which is added: The Na- 
tional Bank Act as now (18G8) in force. 8vo. $4 50 



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HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 13 

DTHIC ALBUM FOR CABINET MAKERS : 
Comprising a Collection of Designs for Gothic Furniture. Il- 
lustrated by twenty-three large and beautifully engraved 
plates. Oblong $3 00 

RANT.— BEET-BOOT SUGAR AND CULTIVATION OF THE 
BEET : 
By E. B. Grant. 12mo $1 25 

REGORY.— MATHEMATICS FOR PRACTICAL MEN ; 

Adapted to the Pursuits of Surveyors, Architects, Mechanics, 
and Civil Engineers. By Olinthus Gregory. 8vo., plates, 
cloth $3 00 

RISWOLD.— RAILROAD ENGINEER'S POCKET COMPANION. 

Comprising Rules for Calculating Deflection Distances and 
Angles, Tangential Distances and Angles, and all Necessary 
Tables for Engineers; also the art of Levelling from Prelimi- 
nary Survey to the Construction of Railroads, intended Ex- 
pressly for the Young Engineer, together with Numerous Valu- 
able Rules and Examples. By W. Griswold. 12mo., tucks. 

$1 75 
UETTIER.— METALLIC ALLOYS : 

Being a Practical Guide to their Chemical and Physical Pro- 
perties, their Preparation, Composition, and Uses. Translated 
from the French of A. Gdettier, Engineer and Director of 
Founderies, author of " La Fouderie en France," etc etc. By 
A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. In one volume, 12mo. 
(In press, shortly to be published.} 

A.TS AND FELTING : 

A Practical Treatise on their Manufacture. By a Practical 
Hatter. Illustrated by Drawings of Machinery, &c, 8vo. 

$1 25- 

AY.— THE INTERIOR DECORATOR : 

The Laws of Harmonious Coloring adapted to Interior Decora- 
tions : with a Practical Treatise on House-Painting. By D. 
R. Hay, House-Painter and Decorator. Illustrated by a Dia- 
gram of the Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Colors. 12mo. 

$2 25 

TTUGHES.— AMERICAN MILLER AND MILLWRIGHT'S AS- 
11 SISTANT : 

By Wm. Carter Hughes. A new edition. In one volume, 
12mo. ..... .... $i 50 



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14 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 

TTUNT .— THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 

By Robert Hunt, Vice-President of the Photographic Society, 
London, with numerous illustrations. 12mo., cloth . 75 

TXURST.— A HAND-BOOK FOR ARCHITECTURAL SURVEYORS : 

Comprising Formulas useful in Designing Builder's work, Table 
of Weights, of the materials used in Building, Memoranda 
connected with Builders' work, Mensuration, the Practice of 
Builders' Measurement, Contracts of Labor, Valuation of Pro- 
perty, Summary of the Practice in Dilapidation, etc. etc. By 
J. F. Hurst, C. E. 2d edition, pocket-book form, full bound 

§2 50 
TERYIS.— RAILWAY PROPERTY : 

A Treatise on the Construction and Management of Railways ; 
designed to afford useful knowledge, in the popular style, to the 
holders of this class of property ; as well as Railway Mana- 
gers, Officers, and Agents. By John B. Jervis, late Chief 
Engineer of the Hudson River Railroad, Croton Aqueduct, &c. 
One vol. 12mo., cloth $2 00 

T0HNS0K\— A REPORT TO THE NAVY DEPARTMENT OF THE 
" UNITED STATES ON AMERICAN COALS : 

Applicable to Steam Navigation and to other purposes. By 
Walter R. Johnson. With numerous illustrations. 607 pp. 
8vo., half morocco $6 00 

JOHNSON— THE COAL TRADE OF BRITISH AMERICA : 

With Researches on the Characters and Practical Values of 
American and Foreign Coals. By Walter R. Johnson, Civil 
and Mining Engineer and Chemist. 8vo. . . . $2 00 

JOHNSTON.— INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF SOILS, 

J LIMESTONES, AND MANURES. 

By J. W. F. Johnston. 12mo 38 

TTEENE,— A HAND-BOOK OF PRACTICAL GAUGING, 

For the Use of Beginners, to which is added A Chapter on Dis- 

. tillation, describing the process in operation at the Custom 

House for ascertaining the strength of wines. By James B. 

Keene, of H. M. Customs. 8vo $125 

T7"ENTISH.— A TREATISE ON A BOX OF INSTRUMENTS, 

And the Slide Rule ; with the Theory of Trigonometry and Lo- 
garithms, including Practical Geometry, Surveying, Measur- 
ing of Timber, Cask and Malt Gauging, Heights, and Distances. 
By Thomas Kentish. In one volume. 12mo. . $1 25 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 15 



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QBELL.— ERNI.--MINERALQGY SIMPLIFIED : 

A short method of Determining and Classifying Minerals, by 
means of simple Chemical Experiments in the Wet Way. 
Translated from the last German Edition of F. Von Kobell, 
with an Introduction to Blowpipe Analysis and other addi- 
tions. By Henri Erni, M. D., Chief Chemist, Department of 
Agriculture, author of " Coal Oil and Petroleum." In one 
volume, 12mo $2 50 

TAFFINEUR.— A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO HYDRAULICS FOR. 

JJ TOWN AND COUNTRY; 

Or a Complete Treatise on the Building of Conduits for Water 
for Cities, Towns, Farms, Country Residences, Workshops, etc. 
Comprising the means necessary for obtaining at all times 
abundant supplies of Drinkable Water. Translated from 
the French of M. Jules Lafeineur, C. E. Illustrated. (In 
press.) 

T ANDRIN.— A TREATISE ON STEEL : 

Comprising its Theory, Metallurgy, Properties, Practical Work- 
ing, and Use. By M. II. C. Landrin, Jr., Civil Engineer. 
Translated from the French, with Notes, by A. A. Fesqtjet, Che- 
mist and Engineer. With an Appendix on the Bessemer and the 
Martin Processes for Manufacturing Steel, from the Report of 
Abram S. Hewitt, United States Commissioner to the Universal 
Exposition, Paris, 1867.. 12mo. . . . . - . $3 00 

T ANDRIN.— A TREATISE ON STEEL : 

Comprising the Theory, Metallurgy, Practical Working, Pro- 
perties, and Use. Translated from the French of H. C. Lan- 
drin, Jr., C. E. By A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer 
Illustrated. 12mo. $3 00 

T ARKIN.— THE PRACTICAL BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER'S 
n GUIDE : 

A Concise Treatise on Brass Founding, Moulding, the Metals 
and their Alloys, etc. ; to which are added Recent Improve- 
ments in the Manufacture of Iron, Steel by the Bessemer Pro-. 
cess, etc. etc. By James Larkin, late Conductor of the Brass 
Foundry Department in Reany, Neafie & Co.'s Penn Works, 
Philadelphia. Fifth edition, revised, with Extensive addi- 
tions. In one volume, 12mo. . . . . $2 25 



16 " HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 

T EAVITT.— FACTS ABOUT PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL : 
With Remarks upon its Origin and Composition, the Localities 
an which it is found, the Methods of Preparation and Manu- 
facture, and the various Uses to which it is applicable ; toge- 
ther with many other matters of Practical and Scientific Inte- 
rest. To which is added a chapter on the Utilization of Coal 
Dust with Peat for the Production of an Excellent Fuel at 
Moderate Cost, especially adapted for Steam Service. By II. 
T. Leavttt. Third edition. 12mo. . . . §1 75 

TEROUX — A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE MANUFAC- 

■" TUBS OF WORSTEDS AND CARDED YARNS: 

Translated from the French of Charles Leroux, Mechanical 
Engineer, and Superintendent of a Spinning Mill. By Dr H. 
Paine, and A. A. Fesqtjet. Illustrated by 12 large plates. In 
one volume 8vo. . . . . . . . . $5 00 

TESLIE (MISS).— COMPLETE COOKERY: 

Directions for Cookery in its Various Branches. By Miss 
Leslie. 60th edition. Thoroughly revised, with the addi- 
tion of New Receipts. In 1 vol. 12mo., cloth . . $1 50 

TESLIE (MISS). LADIES' HOUSE BOOK: 

a Manual of Domestic Economy. 20th revised edition. 12mo., 
cloth ■ . $1 25 

TESLIE "(MISS).— TWO HUNDRED RECEIPTS IN FRENCH 
n COOKERY. 

12mo. . 50 

T LEBER.— ASSAYER'S GUIDE : 

Or, Practical Directions to Assayers, Miners, and Smelters, for 
the Tests and Assays, by Heat and by Wet Processes, for the 
Ores of all the principal Metals, of Gold and Silver Coins and 
Alloys, and of Coal, etc. By Oscar M. Lieber. 12mo., cloth 

§1 25 

T OYE.— THE ART OF DYEING, CLEANING, SCOURING, AND 

^ FINISHING : 

On the most approved English and French methods ; being 
Practical Instructions in Dyeing Silks, Woollens, and Cottons, 
Feathers, Chips, Straw, etc.; Scouring and Cleaning Bed and 
Window Curtains, Carpets, Rugs, etc.; French and English 
Cleaning, etc. By Thomas Lovs. Second American Edition, to 
■which are added General Instructions for the Use of Aniline 
Colors. 8vo 5 00 



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HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 17 

AIN AND BROWN.— QUESTIONS ON SUBJECTS CONNECTED 
WITH THE MARINE STEAM-ENGINE : 

And Examination Papers ; with Hints for their Solution. By 
Thomas J. Main, Professor of Mathematics, Royal Naval College, 
and Thomas Brown, Chief Engineer, R.N. 12mo., cloth $1 50 

AIN AND BROWN.— THE INDICATOR AND DYNAMOMETER: 

"With their Practical Applications to the Steam-Engine. By 
Thomas J. Main, M. A. E. R., Ass't Prof. Royal Naval College, 
Portsmouth, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Chief En- 
gineer, R. N., attached to the R. N. College. Illustrated. Erom 
the Eourth London Edition. 8vo. ... . $1 50 

AIN AND BROWN.— THE MARINE STEAM-ENGINE. 
By Thomas J. Main, F. R. Ass't S. Mathematical Professor at 
Royal Naval College, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. Inst. C. E. 
Chief Engineer, R. N. Attached to the Royal Naval College. 
Authors of " Questions Connected with the Marine Steam-En- 
gine," and the (i Indicator and Dynamometer." With numerous 
Illustrations. In one volume 8vo. . . . . . $5 00 

ARTIN.— SCREW-CUTTING TABLES, FOR THE USE OF ME- 
CHANICAL ENGINEERS : 

Showing the Proper Arrangement of Wheels for Cutting the 
Threads of Screws of any required Pitch ; with a Table for 
Making the Universal Gas-Pipe Thread and Taps. By W. A. 
Martin, Engineer. 8vo 50 

ILES— A PLAIN TREATISE ON HORSE-SHOEING. 
With Illustrations. By William Miles, author of " The Horse's 
Foot" $1 00 

TUTOLES WORTH.— POCKET-BOOK OF USEFUL FORMULAE AND 

m MEMORANDA FOR CIVIL AND MECHANICAL EN3INEERS. 
By Guilford L. Molesworth, Member of the Institution of 
Civil Engineers, Chief Resident Engineer of the Ceylon Railway. 
Second American from the Tenth London Edition. In one 
volume, full bound in pocket-book form . . . . $2 00 

TyrOORE.— THE INVENTOR'S GUIDE: 

Patent Office and Patent Laws : or, a Guide to Inventors, and a 
Book of Reference for Judges, Lawyers, Magistrates, and others. 
By J G.Moore. 12mo., cloth . . . . . $1 25 

■ftTAPIER.— A MANUAL OF ELECTRO-METALLURGY : 

Including the Application of the Art to Manufacturing Processes. 
By James Napier. Fourth American, from the Fourth London 
edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated by engravings. In 
one volume, Svo $2 00 



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18 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 

>T APISH.— A SYSTEM OF CHEMISTS Y APPLIED TO DYEING- : 
Br James Napier, F. C. S. A New and Thoroughly Revised 
Edition, completely brought up to the present state of the 
Science, including the Chemistry of Coal Tar Colors. By A. A. 
Fesquet, -Chemist and Engineer. "With an Appendix on Dyeing 
and Calico Printing, as shown at the Paris Universal Exposition 
of 1867, from the Reports of the International Jury, etc. Illus- 
trated. In one volume 8vo., 400 pages . . . .$5 00 

■JtfEWBEEY.— GLEANINGS FROM ORNAMENTAL ART OF 

1H EVERY STYLE; 

Drawn from Examples in the British, South Kensington, Indian, 
Crystal Palace, and other Museums, the Exhibitions of 1S51 and 
1862, and the best English and Foreign works. In a series of one 
hundred exquisitely drawn Plates, containing many hundred ex- 
amples. By Robert Newbery. 4to. .... $15 00 

■JTICHOLSON.— A MANUAL OF THE ART OF BOOK-BINDING: 

Containing full instructions in the different Branches of Forward- 
ing, Gilding, and Finishing. Also, the Art of Marbling Book- 
edges and Paper. By Jajies B. Nicholson. Illustrated. 12mo. 
cloth .... $2 25 

■fJORRIS.— A HAND-BOOK FOR LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS AND 

XN MACHINISTS: 

Comprising the Proportions and Calculations for Constructing 
Locomotives ; Manner of Setting Valves ; Tables of Squares, 
Cubes, Areas, etc. etc. By Septimus Norris, Civil and Me-= 
chanical Engineer. New edition. Illustrated, 12mo., cloth 

$2 00 

fTYSTROM. — ON TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION AND THE 
±N CONSTRUCTION OF SHIPS AND SCREW PROPELLERS: 

For Naval and Marine Engineers. By John "W". Nystroit, late 
Acting Chief Engineer U. S. N. Second edition, revised with 
additional matter. Illustrated by seven engravings. 12mo. 

$2 50 

NEILL.— A DICTIONARY OF DYEING AND CALICO PRINT- 
ING: 

Containing a brief account of all the Substances and Processes in 
use in the Art of Dyeing and Printing Textile Fabrics : with Prac- 
tical Receipts and Scientific Information. By Charles O'Neill, 
Analytical Chemist ; Fellow of the Chemical Society of London ; 
Member of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester ; 
Author of " Chemistry of Calico Printing and Dyeing." To which 
is added An Essay on Coal Tar Colors and their Application to 







HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 19 

Dyeing and Calico Printing. By A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and 
Engineer. With an Appendix on Dyeing and Calico Printing, as 
shown at the Exposition of 1867, from the Reports of the Interna, 
tional Jury, etc. In one volume 8vo., 491 pages . . $6 00 

ASSORT.— THE METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL : 

Theoretical and Practical : In all its Branches ; With Special Re- 
ference to American Materials and Processes. By H. S. Osborn, 
LL. D., Professor of Mining and Metallurgy in Lafayette College, 
Easton, Pa. Illustrated by 230 Engravings on Wood, and 6 
Folding Plates. 8vo., 972 pages $10 00 

QSBORN.— AMERICAN MINES AND MINING : 

Theoretically and Practically Considered. By Prof. II. S. Os- 
born, Illustrated by numerous engravings. 8vo. {In preparation.) 

pAINTES, GILDER, AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION : 

Containing Rules and Regulations in everything relating to the 
Arts of Painting, Gilding, Varnishing, and Glass Staining, with 
numerous useful and valuable Receipts ; Tests for the Detection 
of Adulterations in Oils and Colors, and a statement of the Dis- 
eases and Accidents to which Painters, Gilders, and Varnishers 
are particularly liable, with the simplest methods of Prevention 
and Remedy. With Directions for Graining, Marbling, Sign Writ- 
ing, and Gilding on Glass. To which are added Complete Instruc- 
tions for Coach Painting and Varnishing. 12mo., cloth, $1 50 

pALLETT.— THE MILLER'S, MILLWRIGHT'S, AND ENGI- 

£ NEER'S GUIDE. 

By Henry Pallett. Illustrated. In one vol. 12mo. . $3 00 

pERKINS.— GAS AND VENTILATION. 

Practical Treatise on Gas and Ventilation. With Special Relation 
to Illuminating, Heating, and Cooking by Gas. Including Scien- 
tific Helps to Engineer-students and others. With illustrated 
Diagrams. By E. E. Perkins. 12mo., cloth . . . $1 25 

pERKINS AND STOWE.— A NEW GUIDE TO THE SHEET-IRON 

L AND BOILER PLATE ROLLER: 

Containing a Series of Tables showing the Weight of Slabs and 
Piles to Produce Boiler Plates, and of the Weight of Piles and the 
Sizes of Bars to Produce Sheet-iron ; the Thickness of the Bar 
Gauge in Decimals ; the Weight per foot, and the Thickness on 
the Bar or Wire Gauge of .the fractional parts of an inch; the 
Weight per sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet- 
iron of various dimensions to weigh 112 lbs. per bundle ; and the 
conversion of Short Weight into Long Weight, and Long Weight 
into Short. Estimated and collected by G. H. Perkins and J. G- 
Stowe $2 50 



HENRY CARET BATED".? CATALOGU] 



"DHILLIPS AND DARLINGTON.— RECORDS OF MINING AND 
X METALLURGY : 

Or, Facts and Memoranda for the use of the Mine Agent and 
Smelter. By J. Aethee Phillips. Mining Engineer, Graduate of 
fche Imperial School of Mines, Erance, etc., and Johx Daelix&iox. 
Illustrated by numerous engravings. In one vol. 12mo. . $2 00 

pRADAl, MALEPEYEE, AND DTJSSATJCE. — A COMPLETE 

r TREATISE ON PERFUMERY : 

Containing notices of the Raw Material used in the Ait, and the 
Eest Formulae. According to the most approved Methods followed 
in Erance. England, and the United States. By M. P. Peadal, 
Perfumer-Chemist, and M. E. Malepeyee. Translated from the 
French, with extensive additions, by Prof H. Bessaece. Svo. $10 

-pROTEAUX.— PRACTICAL GUIDE EOR THE MANUFACTURE 

£ OF PAPER AND BOARDS. 

Br A. Peoteaex, Civil Engineer, and Graduate of the School of 
Arts and Manufactures. Director Df Hiiers's Paper Mill, "Puy-de- 
Eunid. With abiitions. by L. 5. Le Noeoeaxd. Translated from 
the French, with Notes, by Horatio Paixe. A. B.. M. D. To 
which is added a Chapter on the Manufacture of Paper from W< I 
in the United States, by ETexey T. Beowx, of the ''American 
Artisan. " : Illustrated by six plates, containing Drawings of Raw 
Materials, Machinery, Plans of Paper-Mills, etc. etc. Svo. 6: 

•pEGNAULT.— ELEMENTS OF CHEMISTRY. 

ij By M. Y. Re c T vault. Translated from the French by T. Foe- 
pest Behton, M. D., and edited, with notes, by Jaiies C. Booth, 
Meiter and Refiner U. S. Mint, and War. L. Eabee, Metallurgist 
and Mining Engineer. Illustrated by nearly 700 wood engravings. 
Comprising nearly 1500 pages. In two vols. 5vo., cloth $l f . 

■DEID.— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE OF 

11 PORTLAND CEMENT: 

By Eexey Reid. C. E. To which is added a Translation of M. 
A. Lipowitz's Work, describing anew method adopted in Germany 
of Manufacturing that Cement. By W. E. Reid. Illustrated by 
plates and wood engravings. Svo. . . . . $7 00 

■DIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, AND TOUSSAINT.— A PRACTICAL 

■" TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE OF COLORS FOR 
PAINTING : 

Containing the best Formula? and the Processes the Newest and 
in most General Use. By MM. Riffaeet, Yeegxaee. and! i •- 
saixt. Revised and Elite! by M. E. Malepeyee and Dr. Emil 
Wixcklee. Illustrated by Engravings. In one vol. Svo. (In 
■preparation.) 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 21 



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"RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, AND TQUSSAINT.— A PRACTICAL 
TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE OF VARNISHES : 

By MM. Riffattlt, Vergnatjd, and Toussaint. Revised and 
Edited by M. F. Malepeyre and Dr. Emil Winckler. Illus- 
trated. In one vol. 8vo. {hi preparation.) 

CHUNK.— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON RAILWAY CURVES 
10 AND LOCATION, FOR YOUNG ENGINEERS. 

By Wm. F. Shunk, Civil Engineer. 12mo., tucks . . $2 00 

MEATON.— BUILDER'S POCKET COMPANION: 

Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying, and Architec- 
ture ; with Practical Rules and Instructions connected with the sub- 
ject. By A. C. Smeaton, Civil Engineer, etc. In one volume, 
12mo $1 50 

HMITH.— THE DYER'S INSTRUCTOR: 

Comprising Practical Instructions in the Art of Dyeing Silk, Cot- 
ton, "Wool, and Worsted, and "Woollen Goods: containing nearly 
800 Receipts. To which is added a Treatise on the Art of Pad- 
. ding ; and the Printing of Silk "Warps, Skeins, and Handkerchiefs, 
and the various Mordants and Colors for the different styles of 
such work. By David Smith, Pattern Dyer, 12mo., cloth 

$3 00 
OMITH.— THE PRACTICAL DYER'S GUIDE: 

Comprising Practical Instructions in the Dyeing of Shot Cobourgs, 
Silk Striped Orleans, Colored Orleans from Black Warps, ditto 
from White Warps, Colored Cobourgs«from White Warps, Merinos, 
Yarns, Woollen Cloths, etc. Containing nearly 300 Receipts, to 
most of which a Dyed Pattern is annexed. Also, a Treatise on 
the Art of Padding. By David Smith. In one vol. 8vo. $25 00 



S 



HAW.— CIVIL ARCHITECTURE: 

Being a Complete Theoretical and Practical System of Building, 
containing the Fundamental Principles of the Art. By Edward 
Shaw, Architect. To which is added a Treatise on Gothic Archi- 
tecture, &e. By Thomas W. Silloway and George M. Hard- 
ing , Architects. The whole illustrated by 102 quarto plates finely 
engraved on copper. Eleventh Edition. 4to. Cloth. $10 00 

qLOAN.— AMERICAN HOUSES : 

A variety of Original Designs for Rural Buildings. Illustrated by 
26 colored Engravings, with Descriptive References. By Samuel 
Sloan, Architect, author of the " Model Architect," etc. etc. 8vo. 

$2 50 



22 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 

CNMITH.— PARKS AND PLEASURE GROUNDS : 

Or, Practical Notes on Country Residences, Villas, Public Parks, 
and Gardens. By Charles H. J. Smith, Landscape Gardener 
and Garden Architect, etc. etc. 12mo. . . . $2 25 

HTOKES.— CAEINET-MAXER'S AND UPHOLSTERER'S COMPA- 
° NIONi 

Comprising the Rudiments and Principles of Cabinet-making and 
Upholstery, with Familiar Instructions, Illustrated by Examples 
for attaining a Proficiency in the Art of Drawing, as applicable 
to Cabinet-work ; The Processes of Veneering, Inlaying, and 
Buhl-work ; the Art of Dyeing and Staining "Wood, Bone, Tortoise 
Shell, etc. Directions for Lackering, Japanning, and Varnishing ; 
to make French Polish ; to prepare the Best Glues, Cements, and 
Compositions, and a number of Receipts, particularly for workmen 
generally. By J. Stokes. In one vol. 12mo. With illustrations 

$1 25 

STRENGTH AND OTHER PROPERTIES OP METALS. 

Reports of Experiments on the Strength and other Properties of 
Metals for Cannon. With a Description of the Machines for Test- 
ing Metals, and of the Classification of Cannon in service. By 
Officers of the Ordnance Department U. S. Army. By authority 
of the Secretary of War. Illustrated by 25 large steel plates. In 
1 vol. quarto . $10 00 

rpABLES SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF ROUND, SQUARE, AND 

■*■ FLAT BAR IRON, STEEL, ETC. 

By Measurement. Clotk 63 

rpAYLOR.— STATISTICS OF COAL: 

Including Mineral Bituminous Substances employed in Arts and 
Manufactures ; with their Geographical, Geological, and Commer- 
cial Distribution and amount of Production and Consumption on 
the American Continent. With Incidental Statistics of the Iron 
Manufacture. By R. C. Taylor. Second edition, revised by S. 
S. Haldeman. Illustrated by five Maps and many wood engrav- 
ings. 8vo., cloth $6 00 

rpEBJPLETON.— THE PRACTICAL EXAMINATOR ON STEAM 

^ AITD THE STEAM-ENGINE : 

With Instructive References relative thereto, for the Use of Engi- 
neers, Students, and others. By Wsr. Templeton, Engineer 12mo. 

$1 25 

rpHOMAS.— THE MODERN PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 

-*- By R. W. Thomas, F. C. S. 8vo., cloth .... 75 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 23 

rpHOMSON.— FREIGHT CHASSIS CALCULATOR. 

By Andrew Thomson, Freight Agent . . . . $1 25 
rpURNING : SPECIMENS OF FANCY TURNING EXECUTED ON 
X THE HAND OR FOOT LATHE : 

With Geometric, Oval, and Eccentric Chucks, and Elliptical Cut- 
ting Frame. By an Amateur. Illustrated by 30 exquisite Pho- 
tographs. 4to $3 00 

rpURNER'S (THE) COMPANION: 

Containing Instructions in Concentric, Elliptic, and Eccentric 
Turning ; also various Plates of Chucks, Tools, and Instru- 
ments ; and Directions for using the Eccentric Cutter, Drill, 
Vertical Cutter, and Circular Rest ; with Patterns and Instruc- 
tions for working them. A new edition in 1 vol. 12mo. $1 50 

TTRBIN — BRULL. — A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PUDDLING 
U IRON AND STEEL. 

By Ed. Urbtn, Engineer of Arts and Manufactures. A Prize 
Essay read before the Association of Engineers, Graduate of the 
School of Mines, of Liege, Belgium, at the Meeting of 1865-6. 
To which is added a Comparison of the Resisting Properties 
of Iron and Steel. By A. Brull. Translated from the French 
by A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. In one volume, 8vo. 

$1 00 
WARN.— THE SHEET METAL WORKER'S INSTRUCTOR, FOR 
VV ZINC, SHEET-IRON, COPPER AND TIN PLATE WORK- 
ERS, &c. 

By Reuben Henry Warn, Practical Tin Plate Worker. Illus- 
trated by 32 plates. 8vo. {In press, nearly ready.) 

WATSON— A MANUAL OF THE HAND-LATHE. 

By Egbert P. Watson, Late of the " Scientific American," Au- 
thor of "Modern Practice of American Machinists and Engl- 
neers," In one volume, 12mo. $1 50 

WATSON.— THE MODERN PRACTICE OF AMERICAN MA- 
VV CHINISTS AND ENGINEERS: 

Including the Construction, Application, and Use of Drills, Lathe 
Tools, Cutters for Boring Cylinders, and Hollow Work Generally, 
Avith the most Economical Speed of the same, the Results verified 
by Actual Practice at the Lathe, the Vice, and on the Floor. 
Together with Workshop management, Economy of Manufacture, 
the Steam-Engine, Boilers, Gears, Belting, etc. etc. By Egbert 
P. Watson, late of the "Scientific American." Illustrated by 
eighty-six engravings. 12mo. . . . . . $2 50 



24 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 



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ATSON.— THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF THE AET OF 
WEAVING BY HAND AND TOWER : 

With Calculations and Tables for the use of those connected with 
the Trade. By John Watson, Manufacturer and Practical Machine 
Maker. Illustrated by large drawings of the best Power-Looms. 
8vo $10 00 

WEATHERLY.— TREATISE ON .THE ART OF BOILING STJ- 
VV GAR, CRYSTALLIZING, LOZENGE-MAKING, COMFITS, 
GTJM GOODS, 

And other processes for Confectionery, &e. In which are ex- 
plained, in an easy and familiar manner, the various Methods 
of Manufacturing every description of Raw and Refined Sugar 
Goods, as sold by Confectioners and others . . . $2 00 



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ILL.— TABLES FOR QUALITATIVE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. 

By Prof. Hei>~rich Will, of Giessen, Germany. Seventh edi- 
tion. Translated by Charles F. HiiiES, Ph. D., Professor of 
Natural Science, Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa. . . $1 25 

ILLIAMS.— ON HEAT AND STEAM : 

Embracing New Views of Vaporization, Condensation, and Expan- 
sion. By Charles Wye Williams, A. I. C. E. Illustrated. 8vo. 

$3 50 



WOHLER,— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON ANALYTICAL CHE- 
VV MISTRY. 

By F. Wohler. With additions by Graxdeatj and Troost. 
Edited by H. B. Nason, Professor of Chemistry, Rensselaer In- 
stitute, Troy, N. Y. With numerous Illustrations. {In press.) 

WORSSAM.— ON MECHANICAL SAWS : 

From the Transactions of the Society of Engineers, 1S67. By 
S. W. WorsS-UI, Jr. Illustrated by IS large folding plates. Svo. 

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